{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,19]],"date-time":"2026-09-19T14:11:44Z","timestamp":1789827104529,"version":"4.0.1"},"reference-count":109,"publisher":"SAGE Publications","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,17]],"date-time":"2026-09-17T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1789603200000},"content-version":"tdm","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/journals.sagepub.com\/page\/policies\/text-and-data-mining-license"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["journals.sagepub.com"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["Pers Soc Psychol Bull"],"abstract":"<jats:p>\n                    Approach and avoidance are two foundational systems that drive human behavior. Although these systems are generally considered to be shaped by neurobiological factors, approach and avoidance tendencies vary systematically across societies. However, there is currently no framework that explains these cross-societal variations. We propose a socioecological framework to explain how environments with varying levels of relational mobility and societal competition shape individuals\u2019 sensitivity toward reward (i.e., approach) or punishment (i.e., avoidance). Using five studies involving individuals from China, Japan, Taiwan, and the United States (\n                    <jats:italic toggle=\"yes\">N<\/jats:italic>\n                    = 3,639), we found a complex pattern of approach and avoidance tendencies across societies. Specifically, Japanese participants are more avoidance-oriented than U.S. participants, while Chinese and Taiwanese participants are as or more approach-oriented than their U.S. counterparts. These variations were associated with the ecologies of relational mobility and societal competition. Together, these findings offer a novel mobility\u2013competition framework for understanding societal differences in human motivation.\n                  <\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1177\/01461672261481234","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,17]],"date-time":"2026-09-17T11:38:23Z","timestamp":1789645103000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1177\/sage-journals-update-policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Approach\u2013Avoidance Tendencies Across Societies: How Mobility and Competition Shape Human Motivation"],"prefix":"10.1177","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-7448-4421","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Kuan-Ju","family":"Huang","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"The University of Tokyo, Japan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Yen-Ling","family":"Chen","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"National Taiwan University, Taiwan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Yan","family":"Li","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Kyoto University, Japan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Xian","family":"Zhao","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Ohio University, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"179","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,17]]},"reference":[{"key":"e_1_3_3_2_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Atari M. Henrich J. (2023). Historical psychology. Current Directions in Psychological Science 32(2) 176\u2013183. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1177\/09637214221149737","DOI":"10.1177\/09637214221149737"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_3_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Blascovich J. Mendes W. B. Hunter S. B. Salomon K. (1999). Social \u201cfacilitation\u201d as challenge and threat. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 77(1) 68\u201377. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1037\/0022-3514.77.1.68","DOI":"10.1037\/0022-3514.77.1.68"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_4_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Brislin R. W. (1970). Back-translation for cross-cultural research. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology 1(3) 185\u2013216. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1177\/135910457000100301","DOI":"10.1177\/135910457000100301"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_5_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Carver C. S. White T. L. (1994). Behavioral inhibition behavioral activation and affective responses to impending reward and punishment: The BIS\/BAS Scales. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 67(2) 319\u2013333. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1037\/0022-3514.67.2.319","DOI":"10.1037\/0022-3514.67.2.319"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_6_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Chen T. Kung J. K. S. Ma C. (2020). Long live Keju! The persistent effects of China\u2019s civil examination system. The Economic Journal 130(631) 2030\u20132064. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1093\/ej\/ueaa043","DOI":"10.1093\/ej\/ueaa043"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_7_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Chen W.-W. (2016). The relations between filial piety goal orientations and academic achievement in Hong Kong. Educational Psychology 36(5) 898\u2013915. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1080\/01443410.2015.1008404","DOI":"10.1080\/01443410.2015.1008404"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_8_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Chen X.-P. Xie X. Chang S. (2011). Cooperative and competitive orientation among Chinese people: Scale development and validation. Management and Organization Review 7(2) 353\u2013379. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1111\/j.1740-8784.2011.00215.x","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1740-8784.2011.00215.x"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_9_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Chen Y.-L. Sherwood S. N. Freeman A. J. (2023). Multidimensional item response theory of the BIS\/BAS Scales: Evidence for a bifactor model structure. Journal of Psychopathology and Behavioral Assessment 45(4) 1059\u20131067. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s10862-023-10064-6","DOI":"10.1007\/s10862-023-10064-6"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_10_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Chuang R. Ishii K. Kim H. S. Sherman D. K. (2022). Swinging for the fences versus advancing the runner: Culture motivation and strategic decision making. Social Psychological and Personality Science 13(1) 91\u2013101. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1177\/1948550621999273","DOI":"10.1177\/1948550621999273"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_11_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Chung E. K. Kim S. J. Sohn Y. W. (2014). Regulatory focus as a predictor of omission bias in moral judgment: Mediating role of anticipated regrets. Asian Journal of Social Psychology 17(4) 302\u2013311. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1111\/ajsp.12060","DOI":"10.1111\/ajsp.12060"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_12_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Colder C. R. O\u2019Connor R. M. (2004). Gray\u2019s reinforcement sensitivity model and child psychopathology: Laboratory and questionnaire assessment of the BAS and BIS. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology 32(4) 435\u2013451. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1023\/B:JACP.0000030296.54122.b6","DOI":"10.1023\/B:JACP.0000030296.54122.b6"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_13_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Elliot A. J. (1999). Approach and avoidance motivation and achievement goals. Educational Psychologist 34(3) 169\u2013189. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1207\/s15326985ep3403_3","DOI":"10.1207\/s15326985ep3403_3"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_14_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Elliot A. J. Chirkov V. I. Kim Y. Sheldon K. M. (2001). A cross-cultural analysis of avoidance (relative to approach) personal goals. Psychological Science 12(6) 505\u2013510. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1111\/1467-9280.00393","DOI":"10.1111\/1467-9280.00393"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_15_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Elliot A. J. Church M. A. (1997). A hierarchical model of approach and avoidance achievement motivation. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 72(1) 218\u2013232. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1037\/0022-3514.72.1.218","DOI":"10.1037\/0022-3514.72.1.218"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_16_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Elliot A. J. Sedikides C. Murayama K. Tanaka A. Thrash T. M. Mapes R. R. (2012). Cross-cultural generality and specificity in self-regulation: Avoidance personal goals and multiple aspects of well-being in the United States and Japan. Emotion 12(5) 1031\u20131040. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1037\/a0027456","DOI":"10.1037\/a0027456"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_17_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Elliot A. J. Thrash T. M. (2002). Approach-avoidance motivation in personality: Approach and avoidance temperaments and goals. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 82(5) 804\u2013818. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1037\/0022-3514.82.5.804","DOI":"10.1037\/0022-3514.82.5.804"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_18_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Elliot A. J. Thrash T. M. Murayama K. (2011). A longitudinal analysis of self-regulation and well-being: Avoidance personal goals avoidance coping stress generation and subjective well-being. Journal of Personality 79(3) 643\u2013674. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1111\/j.1467-6494.2011.00694.x","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1467-6494.2011.00694.x"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_19_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Falk C. F. Heine S. J. Yuki M. Takemura K. (2009). Why do Westerners self-enhance more than East Asians? European Journal of Personality 23(3) 183\u2013203. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1002\/per.715","DOI":"10.1002\/per.715"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_20_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ferris D. L. Johnson R. E. Rosen C. C. Djurdjevic E. Chang C.-H. (D.) Tan J. A. (2013). When is success not satisfying? Integrating regulatory focus and approach\/avoidance motivation theories to explain the relation between core self-evaluation and job satisfaction. Journal of Applied Psychology 98(2) 342\u2013353. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1037\/a0029776","DOI":"10.1037\/a0029776"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_21_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Fincher C. L. Thornhill R. Murray D. R. Schaller M. (2008). Pathogen prevalence predicts human cross-cultural variability in individualism\/collectivism. Proceedings: Biological sciences 275(1640) 1279\u20131285. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1098\/rspb.2008.0094","DOI":"10.1098\/rspb.2008.0094"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_22_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Fowles D. C. (1980). The three arousal model: Implications of Gray\u2019s two-factor learning theory for heart rate electrodermal activity and psychopathy. Psychophysiology 17 87\u2013104. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1111\/j.1469-8986.1980.tb00117.x","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1469-8986.1980.tb00117.x"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_23_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Gable S. L. Reis H. T. Elliot A. J. (2000). Behavioral activation and inhibition in everyday life. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 78(6) 1135\u20131149. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1037\/0022-3514.78.6.1135","DOI":"10.1037\/0022-3514.78.6.1135"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_24_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Garris C. P. Ohbuchi K.-i. Oikawa H. Harris M. J. (2011). Consequences of interpersonal rejection: A cross-cultural experimental study. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology 42(6) 1066\u20131083. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1177\/0022022110381428","DOI":"10.1177\/0022022110381428"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_25_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Gelfand M. J. Leslie L. M. Keller K. de Dreu C. (2012). Conflict cultures in organizations: How leaders shape conflict cultures and their organizational-level consequences. Journal of Applied Psychology 97(6) 1131\u20131147. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1037\/a0029993","DOI":"10.1037\/a0029993"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_26_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Gosling S. D. Rentfrow P. J. Swann W. B.Jr. (2003). A very brief measure of the Big-Five personality domains. Journal of Research in Personality 37(6) 504\u2013528. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/S0092-6566(03)00046-1","DOI":"10.1016\/S0092-6566(03)00046-1"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_27_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Granovetter M. (1983). The strength of weak ties: A network theory revisited. Sociological Theory 1 201\u2013233. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.2307\/202051","DOI":"10.2307\/202051"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_28_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Gray J. A. (1981). A critique of Eysenck\u2019s theory of personality. In Eysenck H. J. (Ed.) A model for personality (pp. 246\u2013276). Springer. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/978-3-642-67783-0_8","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-642-67783-0_8"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_29_1","volume-title":"The neuropsychology of anxiety: An enquiry into the functions of the septo-hippocampal system","author":"Gray J. A.","year":"1982","unstructured":"Gray J. A. (1982). The neuropsychology of anxiety: An enquiry into the functions of the septo-hippocampal system. Clarendon Press\/Oxford University Press."},{"key":"e_1_3_3_30_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Gray J. A. (1987). Perspectives on anxiety and impulsivity: A commentary. Journal of Research in Personality 21 493\u2013509. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/0092-6566(87)90036-5","DOI":"10.1016\/0092-6566(87)90036-5"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_31_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hamamura T. Meijer Z. Heine S. J. Kamaya K. Hori I. (2009). Approach-avoidance motivation and information processing: A cross-cultural analysis. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 35(4) 454\u2013462. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1177\/0146167208329512","DOI":"10.1177\/0146167208329512"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_32_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Han S. Northoff G. Vogeley K. Wexler B. E. Kitayama S. Varnum M. E. (2013). A cultural neuroscience approach to the biosocial nature of the human brain. Annual Review of Psychology 64(1) 335\u2013359. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1146\/annurev-psych-071112-054629","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev-psych-071112-054629"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_33_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hangen E. J. Elliot A. J. Jamieson J. P. (2016). The opposing processes model of competition: Elucidating the effects of competition on risk-taking. Motivation Science 2(3) 157\u2013170. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1037\/mot0000038","DOI":"10.1037\/mot0000038"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_34_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hashimoto H. Yamagishi T. (2013). Two faces of interdependence: Harmony seeking and rejection avoidance. Asian Journal of Social Psychology 16(2) 142\u2013151. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1111\/ajsp.12022","DOI":"10.1111\/ajsp.12022"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_35_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hashimoto H. Yamagishi T. (2016). Duality of independence and interdependence: An adaptationist perspective. Asian Journal of Social Psychology 19(4) 286\u2013297. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1111\/ajsp.12145","DOI":"10.1111\/ajsp.12145"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_36_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hashimoto T. Mojaverian T. Kim H. S. (2012). Culture interpersonal stress and psychological distress. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology 43(4) 527\u2013532. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1177\/0022022112438396","DOI":"10.1177\/0022022112438396"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_37_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/9780470561119.socpsy002037"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_38_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Heine S. J. Lehman D. R. Peng K. Greenholtz J. (2002). What\u2019s wrong with cross-cultural comparisons of subjective Likert scales? The reference-group effect. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 82(6) 903\u2013918. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1037\/0022-3514.82.6.903","DOI":"10.1037\/0022-3514.82.6.903"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_39_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Higgins E. T. (1997). Beyond pleasure and pain. American Psychologist 52(12) 1280\u20131300. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1037\/0003-066X.52.12.1280","DOI":"10.1037\/0003-066X.52.12.1280"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_40_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/S0065-2601(08)60381-0"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_41_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Higgins E. T. Friedman R. S. Harlow R. E. Idson L. C. Ayduk O. N. Taylor A. (2001). Achievement orientations from subjective histories of success: Promotion pride versus prevention pride. European Journal of Social Psychology 31 3\u201323. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1002\/ejsp.27","DOI":"10.1002\/ejsp.27"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_42_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hsee C. Weber E. U. (1999). Cross-national differences in risk preference and lay predictions. Journal of Behavioral Decision Making 12(2) 165\u2013179. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1002\/(SICI)1099-0771(199906)12:2<165::AID-BDM316>3.0.CO;2-N","DOI":"10.1002\/(SICI)1099-0771(199906)12:2<165::AID-BDM316>3.0.CO;2-N"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_43_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Huang K.-J. (2026a). Relational mobility promotes optimism and willingness to delay happiness. Emotion. Advance online publication. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1037\/emo0001655","DOI":"10.1037\/emo0001655"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_44_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Huang K.-J. (2026b). Social class control and culture: Individuals with low socioeconomic status perceive less control in relationally immobile societies. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 52 1829\u20131848. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1177\/01461672251328722","DOI":"10.1177\/01461672251328722"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_45_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Huang K.-J. Chen J.-H. (2024). Filial piety and the development of independence and interdependence during emerging adulthood: A longitudinal study of Taiwanese adolescents. Journal of Youth and Adolescence 53(5) 1232\u20131243. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s10964-023-01929-w","DOI":"10.1007\/s10964-023-01929-w"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_46_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Huang K.-J. de Almeida I. Uchida Y. Oishi S. (2026). Low relational mobility fosters interpersonal indecision through increased sensitivity to social rejection. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 52(6) 1391\u20131409. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1177\/01461672241312260","DOI":"10.1177\/01461672241312260"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_47_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hwang K. K. (1987). Face and favor: The Chinese power game. American Journal of Sociology 92(4) 944\u2013974. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1086\/228588","DOI":"10.1086\/228588"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_48_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Jorm A. F. Christensen H. Henderson A. S. Jacomb P. A. Korten A. E. Rodgers B. (1998). Using the BIS\/BAS scales to measure behavioural inhibition and behavioural activation: Factor structure validity and norms in a large community sample. Personality and Individual Differences 26(1) 49\u201358. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/S0191-8869(98)00143-3","DOI":"10.1016\/S0191-8869(98)00143-3"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_49_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kim H. S. Sasaki J. Y. (2014). Cultural neuroscience: Biology of the mind in cultural contexts. Annual Review of Psychology 65(1) 487\u2013514. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1146\/annurev-psych-010213-115040","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev-psych-010213-115040"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_50_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kung F. Y. H. Kim Y.-H. Yang D. Y.-J. Cheng S. Y. Y. (2016). The role of regulatory fit in framing effective negative feedback across cultures. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology 47(5) 696\u2013712. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1177\/0022022116638172","DOI":"10.1177\/0022022116638172"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_51_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kurman J. Hui C.-M. (2012). Cultural regulatory fit and strategies for coping with unsuccessful outcomes. European Journal of Social Psychology 42(4) 482\u2013489. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1002\/ejsp.1838","DOI":"10.1002\/ejsp.1838"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_52_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kurman J. Liem G. A. Ivancovsky T. Morio H. Lee J. (2015). Regulatory focus as an explanatory variable for cross-cultural differences in achievement-related behavior. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology 46(2) 171\u2013190. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1177\/0022022114558090","DOI":"10.1177\/0022022114558090"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_53_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lam S. F. Yim P. S. Law J. S. Cheung R. W. (2004). The effects of competition on achievement motivation in Chinese classrooms. British Journal of Educational Psychology 74(2) 281\u2013296. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1348\/000709904773839888","DOI":"10.1348\/000709904773839888"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_54_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lanaj K. Chang C. H. Johnson R. E. (2012). Regulatory focus and work-related outcomes: A review and meta-analysis. Psychological Bulletin 138(5) 998\u20131034. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1037\/a0027723","DOI":"10.1037\/a0027723"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_55_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lee A. Y. Aaker J. L. Gardner W. L. (2000). The pleasures and pains of distinct self-construals: The role of interdependence in regulatory focus. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 78(6) 1122\u20131134. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1037\/0022-3514.78.6.1122","DOI":"10.1037\/0022-3514.78.6.1122"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_56_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Li L. M. W. Adams G. Kurti\u015f T. Hamamura T. (2015). Beware of friends: The cultural psychology of relational mobility and cautious intimacy. Asian Journal of Social Psychology 18(2) 124\u2013133. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1111\/ajsp.12091","DOI":"10.1111\/ajsp.12091"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_57_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Li L. M. W. Hamamura T. Adams G. (2016). Relational mobility increases social (but not other) risk propensity. Journal of Behavioral Decision Making 29(5) 481\u2013488. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1002\/bdm.1894","DOI":"10.1002\/bdm.1894"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_58_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Li S. (2026). Education investment \u201crat race\u201d in China: How income inequality shapes family investment in shadow education. Asia Pacific Education Review 27(1) 75\u201388. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s12564-023-09852-2","DOI":"10.1007\/s12564-023-09852-2"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_59_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Liew K. Hamamura T. Uchida Y. (2025). Machine learning culture: Cultural membership classification as an exploratory approach to cross-cultural psychology. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin. Advance online publication. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1177\/01461672251339313","DOI":"10.1177\/01461672251339313"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_60_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Loijen A. Vrijsen J. N. Egger J. I. M. Becker E. S. Rinck M. (2020). Biased approach-avoidance tendencies in psychopathology: A systematic review of their assessment and modification. Clinical Psychology Review 77 Article 101825. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.cpr.2020.101825","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cpr.2020.101825"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_61_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lou N. M. Li L. M. W. (2017). Interpersonal relationship mindsets and rejection sensitivity across cultures: The role of relational mobility. Personality and Individual Differences 108 200\u2013206. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.paid.2016.12.004","DOI":"10.1016\/j.paid.2016.12.004"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_62_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lucas R. E. Donnellan M. B. (2012). Estimating the reliability of single-item life satisfaction measures: Results from four national panel studies. Social Indicators Research 105(3) 323\u2013331. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s11205-011-9783-z","DOI":"10.1007\/s11205-011-9783-z"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_63_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Meaney M. J. (2010). Epigenetics and the biological definition of gene x environment interactions. Child Development 81(1) 41\u201379. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1111\/j.1467-8624.2009.01381.x","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1467-8624.2009.01381.x"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_64_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Meece J. L. Anderman E. M. Anderman L. H. (2006). Classroom goal structure student motivation and academic achievement. Annual Review of Psychology 57 487\u2013503. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1146\/annurev.psych.56.091103.070258","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev.psych.56.091103.070258"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_65_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Murayama K. Elliot A. J. (2012). The competition\u2013performance relation: A meta-analytic review and test of the opposing processes model of competition and performance. Psychological Bulletin 138(6) 1035\u20131070. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1037\/a0028324","DOI":"10.1037\/a0028324"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_66_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1093\/oxfordhb\/9780190060800.013.8"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_67_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Norenzayan A. Heine S. J. (2005). Psychological universals: What are they and how can we know? Psychological Bulletin 131(5) 763\u2013784. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1037\/0033-2909.131.5.763","DOI":"10.1037\/0033-2909.131.5.763"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_68_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Oishi S. (2014). Socioecological psychology. Annual Review of Psychology 65 581\u2013609. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1146\/annurev-psych-030413-152156","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev-psych-030413-152156"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_69_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Oishi S. Graham J. (2010). Social ecology: Lost and found in psychological science. Perspectives on Psychological Science 5(4) 356\u2013377. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1177\/1745691610374588","DOI":"10.1177\/1745691610374588"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_70_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Oishi S. Schimmack U. (2010). Residential mobility well-being and mortality. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 98(6) 980\u2013994. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1037\/a0019389","DOI":"10.1037\/a0019389"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_71_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ouschan L. Boldero J. M. Kashima Y. Wakimoto R. Kashima E. S. (2007). Regulatory focus strategies scale: A measure of individual differences in the endorsement of regulatory strategies. Asian Journal of Social Psychology 10(4) 243\u2013257. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1111\/j.1467-839X.2007.00233.x","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1467-839X.2007.00233.x"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_72_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Pudelko M. (2006). The seniority principle in Japanese companies: A relic of the past? Asia Pacific Journal of Human Resources 44(3) 276\u2013294. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1177\/1038411106069412","DOI":"10.1177\/1038411106069412"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_73_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Rieger M. O. Wang M. Hens T. (2015). Risk preferences around the world. Management Science 61(3) 637\u2013648. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1287\/mnsc.2013.1869","DOI":"10.1287\/mnsc.2013.1869"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_74_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"R\u00f3\u017cycka-Tran J. Boski P. Wojciszke B. (2015). Belief in a zero-sum game as a social axiom: A 37-nation study. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology 46(4) 525\u2013548. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1177\/0022022115572226","DOI":"10.1177\/0022022115572226"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_75_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Salvador C. E. Idrovo Carlier S. Ishii K. Torres Castillo C. Nanakdewa K. Canale Segovia F. San Martin A. Savani K. Kitayama S. (2025). Self-Enhancement in Latin America: Is It Linked to Interdependence? Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin. Advance online publication. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1177\/01461672241309387","DOI":"10.1177\/01461672241309387"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_76_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sato K. Yuki M. Norasakkunkit V. (2014). A socio-ecological approach to cross-cultural differences in the sensitivity to social rejection: The partially mediating role of relational mobility. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology 45(10) 1549\u20131560. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1177\/0022022114544320","DOI":"10.1177\/0022022114544320"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_77_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Schug J. Yuki M. Horikawa H. Takemura K. (2009). Similarity attraction and actually selecting similar others: How cross-societal differences in relational mobility affect interpersonal similarity in Japan and the USA. Asian Journal of Social Psychology 12(2) 95\u2013103. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1111\/j.1467-839X.2009.01277.x","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1467-839X.2009.01277.x"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_78_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Singelis T. M. Triandis H. C. Bhawuk D. P. Gelfand M. J. (1995). Horizontal and vertical dimensions of individualism and collectivism: A theoretical and measurement refinement. Cross-Cultural Research 29(3) 240\u2013275. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1177\/106939719502900302","DOI":"10.1177\/106939719502900302"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_79_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Smits D. J. Boeck P. D. (2006). From BIS\/BAS to the big five. European Journal of Personality 20(4) 255\u2013270. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1002\/per.583","DOI":"10.1002\/per.583"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_80_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sommet N. Elliot A. J. Jamieson J. P. Butera F. (2019). Income inequality perceived competitiveness and approach-avoidance motivation. Journal of Personality 87(4) 767\u2013784. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1111\/jopy.12432","DOI":"10.1111\/jopy.12432"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_81_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Spadaro G. Graf C. Jin S. Arai S. Inoue Y. Lieberman E. Rinderu M. I. Yuan M. Van Lissa C. J. Balliet D. (2022). Cross-cultural variation in cooperation: A meta-analysis. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 123(5) 1024\u20131088. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1037\/pspi0000389","DOI":"10.1037\/pspi0000389"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_82_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Thomson R. Yuki M. Talhelm T. Schug J. Kito M. Ayanian A. H. Becker J. C. Becker M. Chiu C.-y. Choi H.-S. Ferreira C. M. F\u00fcl\u00f6p M. Gul P. Houghton-Illera A. M. Joasoo M. Jong J. Kavanagh C. M. Khutkyy D. Manzi C. .\u2004.\u2004. Visserman M. L. (2018). Relational mobility predicts social behaviors in 39 countries and is tied to historical farming and threat. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences USA 115(29) 7521\u20137526. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1073\/pnas.1713191115","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.1713191115"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_83_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Tomaka J. Blascovich J. Kibler J. Ernst J. M. (1997). Cognitive and physiological antecedents of threat and challenge appraisal. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 73(1) 63\u201372. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1037\/0022-3514.73.1.63","DOI":"10.1037\/0022-3514.73.1.63"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_84_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Triandis H. C. Gelfand M. J. (1998). Converging measurement of horizontal and vertical individualism and collectivism. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 74(1) 118\u2013128. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1037\/0022-3514.74.1.118","DOI":"10.1037\/0022-3514.74.1.118"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_85_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Updegraff J. A. Gable S. L. Taylor S. E. (2004). What makes experiences satisfying? The interaction of approach-avoidance motivations and emotions in well-being. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 86(3) 496\u2013504. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1037\/0022-3514.86.3.496","DOI":"10.1037\/0022-3514.86.3.496"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_86_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Urdan T. Schoenfelder E. (2006). Classroom effects on student motivation: Goal structures social relationships and competence beliefs. Journal of School Psychology 44(5) 331\u2013349. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.jsp.2006.04.003","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jsp.2006.04.003"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_87_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Uro\u0161evi\u0107 S. Collins P. Muetzel R. Lim K. Luciana M. (2012). Longitudinal changes in behavioral approach system sensitivity and brain structures involved in reward processing during adolescence. Developmental Psychology 48(5) 1488\u20131500. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1037\/a0027502","DOI":"10.1037\/a0027502"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_88_1","unstructured":"U.S. Census Bureau. (2021). State area measurements and internal point coordinates. https:\/\/www.census.gov\/geographies\/reference-files\/2010\/geo\/state-area.html"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_89_1","unstructured":"U.S. Census Bureau. (2024a). Annual estimates of the resident population for the United States regions states District of Columbia and Puerto Rico: April 1 2020 to July 1 2024 (NST-EST2024-POP). https:\/\/www.census.gov\/data\/tables\/time-series\/demo\/popest\/2020s-state-total.html"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_90_1","unstructured":"U.S. Census Bureau. (2024b). Household income in states and metropolitan areas: 2023 (ACSBR-023). https:\/\/www.census.gov\/library\/publications\/2024\/acs\/acsbr-023.html"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_91_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Uskul A. K. Sherman D. K. Fitzgibbon J. (2009). The cultural congruency effect: Culture regulatory focus and the effectiveness of gain-vs. loss-framed health messages. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology 45(3) 535\u2013541. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.jesp.2008.12.005","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jesp.2008.12.005"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_92_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Vandello J. A. Cohen D. (1999). Patterns of individualism and collectivism across the United States. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 77(2) 279\u2013292. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1037\/0022-3514.77.2.279","DOI":"10.1037\/0022-3514.77.2.279"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_93_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wang Y. Highhouse S. Brooks M. (2022). Culture versus other sources of variance in risk and benefit perceptions: A comparison of Japan and the United States. Journal of Behavioral Decision Making 35(5) Article e2277. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1002\/bdm.2277","DOI":"10.1002\/bdm.2277"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_94_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wei L. English A. S. Talhelm T. Zhang Y. Tan X. Zhu J. Wang J. (2025). People in relationally mobile cultures report higher well-being. Emotion 25(3) 541\u2013555. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1037\/emo0001439","DOI":"10.1037\/emo0001439"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_95_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wice M. Karasawa M. Matsui T. Miller J. G. (2020). Knowing minds: Culture and perceptions of mental state access. Asian Journal of Social Psychology 23(3) 319\u2013327. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1111\/ajsp.12404","DOI":"10.1111\/ajsp.12404"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_96_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wu K. Talhelm T. (2023). Hide a dagger behind a smile: A review of how collectivistic cultures compete more than individualistic cultures. In Garcia S. M. Tor A. Elliot A. J. (Eds.) The Oxford handbook of the psychology of competition (pp. 611\u2013642). Oxford University Press. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1093\/oxfordhb\/9780190060800.013.26","DOI":"10.1093\/oxfordhb\/9780190060800.013.26"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_97_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Xiao S. Qian Y. (2020). Mate selection among online daters in Shanghai: Why does education matter? Chinese Journal of Sociology 6(4) 521\u2013546. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1177\/2057150X20957422","DOI":"10.1177\/2057150X20957422"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_98_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Yamagishi T. Hashimoto H. Li Y. Schug J. (2012). Stadtluft Macht Frei (City Air Brings Freedom). Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology 43(1) 38\u201345. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1177\/0022022111415407","DOI":"10.1177\/0022022111415407"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_99_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Yamagishi T. Hashimoto H. Schug J. (2008). Preferences versus strategies as explanations for culture-specific behavior. Psychological Science 19(6) 579\u2013584. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1111\/j.1467-9280.2008.02126.x","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1467-9280.2008.02126.x"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_100_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Yamagishi T. Yamagishi M. (1994). Trust and commitment in the United States and Japan. Motivation and Emotion 18(2) 129\u2013166. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/BF02249397","DOI":"10.1007\/BF02249397"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_101_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Yeh K.-H. Bedford O. (2003). A test of the dual filial piety model. Asian Journal of Social Psychology 6(3) 215\u2013228. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1046\/j.1467-839X.2003.00122.x","DOI":"10.1046\/j.1467-839X.2003.00122.x"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_102_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Yuki M. Schug J. (2012). Relational mobility: A socioecological approach to personal relationships. In Gillath O. Adams G. Kunkel A. (Eds.) Relationship science: Integrating evolutionary neuroscience and sociocultural approaches (pp. 137\u2013151). American Psychological Association. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1037\/13489-007","DOI":"10.1037\/13489-007"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_103_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Yuki M. Schug J. (2020). Psychological consequences of relational mobility. Current Opinion in Psychology 32 129\u2013132. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.copsyc.2019.07.029","DOI":"10.1016\/j.copsyc.2019.07.029"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_104_1","unstructured":"Yuki M. Schug J. Horikawa H. Takemura K. Kamaya K. (2007). Development of a scale to measure perceptions of relational mobility in society (CERSS Working Paper 75). Center for Experimental Research in Social Sciences Hokkaido University."},{"key":"e_1_3_3_105_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zhai G. Suzuki T. (2009). Risk perception in Northeast Asia. Environmental Monitoring and Assessment 157(1\u20134) 151\u2013167. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s10661-008-0524-y","DOI":"10.1007\/s10661-008-0524-y"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_106_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zhang L. Hui B. P. Kong F. Lu H. Chen S. X. (2025). Why people \u201clie flat\u201d? An integrative framework of social-psychological pathways in China. Personality and Social Psychology Review 29(4) 371\u2013382. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1177\/10888683251358516","DOI":"10.1177\/10888683251358516"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_107_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zhang W. Pan C. Yao S. Zhu J. Ling D. Yang H. Xu J. Mu Y. (2024). \u201cNeijuan\u201d in China: The psychological concept and its characteristic dimensions. Acta Psychologica Sinica 56(1) 107\u2013123. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3724\/SP.J.1041.2024.00107","DOI":"10.3724\/SP.J.1041.2024.00107"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_108_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zhang X. Zhao X. (2021). Relational mobility promotes subjective well-being through control over interpersonal relationships among the Chinese. Asian Journal of Social Psychology 24(1) 83\u201397. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1111\/ajsp.12426","DOI":"10.1111\/ajsp.12426"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_109_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zhao X. Adams G. Li D. Esiaka D. (2025). Reverence and reciprocity in prioritization of care to a parent: The role of cultural ecologies and implications for decolonizing relationality. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 51(8) 1374\u20131395. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1177\/01461672231218341","DOI":"10.1177\/01461672231218341"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_110_1","unstructured":"Zhu Y. Yuki M. (2024 February 8\u201310). The manipulation of relational mobility [Poster presentation]. Society for Personality and Social Psychology\u2019s Annual Convention San Diego CA. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.13140\/RG.2.2.22153.66407"}],"container-title":["Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/journals.sagepub.com\/doi\/pdf\/10.1177\/01461672261481234","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/journals.sagepub.com\/doi\/full-xml\/10.1177\/01461672261481234","content-type":"application\/xml","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/journals.sagepub.com\/doi\/pdf\/10.1177\/01461672261481234","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,19]],"date-time":"2026-09-19T13:59:36Z","timestamp":1789826376000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/journals.sagepub.com\/doi\/10.1177\/01461672261481234"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,17]]},"references-count":109,"alternative-id":["10.1177\/01461672261481234"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1177\/01461672261481234","relation":{},"ISSN":["0146-1672","1552-7433"],"issn-type":[{"value":"0146-1672","type":"print"},{"value":"1552-7433","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,17]]},"article-number":"01461672261481234"}}