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We measured mRNA cyclooxygenase-2, interleukin-1\u03b2, and CD14 in target brain regions from low (n = 12) or highly exposed residents (n = 35) aged 25.1 \u00b1 1.5 years. Upregulation of cyclooxygenase-2, interleukin-1\u03b2, and CD14 in olfactory bulb, frontal cortex, substantia nigrae and vagus nerves; disruption of the blood-brain barrier; endothelial activation, oxidative stress, and inflammatory cell trafficking were seen in highly exposed subjects. Amyloid \u03b242 (A\u03b242) immunoreactivity was observed in 58.8% of apolipoprotein E (APOE) 3\/3 &lt; 25 y, and 100% of the APOE 4 subjects, whereas \u03b1-synuclein was seen in 23.5% of &lt; 25 y subjects. Particulate material (PM) was seen in olfactory bulb neurons, and PM &lt; 100 nm were observed in intraluminal erythrocytes from lung, frontal, and trigeminal ganglia capillaries.<\/jats:p>\n                  <jats:p>Exposure to air pollution causes neuroinflammation, an altered brain innate immune response, and accumulation of A\u03b242 and \u03b1-synuclein starting in childhood. Exposure to air pollution should be considered a risk factor for Alzheimer\u2019s and Parkinson\u2019s diseases, and carriers of the APOE 4 allele could have a higher risk of developing Alzheimer\u2019s disease if they reside in a polluted environment.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1177\/0192623307313011","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2008,3,18]],"date-time":"2008-03-18T21:44:27Z","timestamp":1205876667000},"page":"289-310","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":892,"title":["Long-term Air Pollution Exposure Is Associated with Neuroinflammation, an Altered Innate Immune Response, Disruption of the Blood-Brain Barrier, Ultrafine Particulate Deposition, and Accumulation of Amyloid \u03b2-42 and \u03b1-Synuclein in Children and Young Adults"],"prefix":"10.1177","volume":"36","author":[{"given":"Lilian","family":"Calder\u00f3n-Garcidue\u00f1as","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Instituto Nacional de Pediatr\u00eda, Mexico City, Mexico"},{"name":"The College of 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