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Emerging evidence supports the involvement of renal tubular epithelial cells and the innate and adaptive arms of the immune system in the pathogenesis of intrinsic AKI. Pro-inflammatory damage-associated molecular patterns, pathogen-associated molecular patterns, hypoxia inducible factors, toll-like receptors, complement system, oxidative stress, adhesion molecules, cell death, resident renal dendritic cells, neutrophils, T and B lymphocytes, macrophages, natural killer T cells, cytokines, and secreted chemokines contribute to the immunopathogenesis of AKI. However, other immune cells and pathways such as M2 macrophages, regulatory T cells, progranulin, and autophagy exhibit anti-inflammatory properties and facilitate kidney tissue repair after AKI. Thus, therapies for AKI include agents such as anti-inflammatory (e.g., recombinant alkaline phosphatase), antioxidants (iron chelators), and apoptosis inhibitors. In preclinical toxicity studies, drug-induced kidney injury can be seen after exposure to a nephrotoxicant test article due to immune mechanisms and dysregulation of innate, and\/or adaptive cellular immunity. The focus of this review will be on intrinsic AKI, as it relates to the immune and renal systems cross talks focusing on the cellular and pathophysiologic mechanisms of AKI.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1177\/0192623318799976","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2018,10,3]],"date-time":"2018-10-03T22:07:09Z","timestamp":1538604429000},"page":"930-943","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1177\/sage-journals-update-policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":53,"title":["Immunopathogenesis of Acute Kidney Injury"],"prefix":"10.1177","volume":"46","author":[{"given":"Zaher A.","family":"Radi","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Drug Safety R&D, Pfizer Worldwide Research and Development, Cambridge, Massachusetts, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"179","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2018,10,3]]},"reference":[{"key":"bibr1-0192623318799976","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ajpath.2011.05.037"},{"key":"bibr2-0192623318799976","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1097\/01.ASN.0000121781.89599.16"},{"key":"bibr3-0192623318799976","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1159\/000363669"},{"key":"bibr4-0192623318799976","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1097\/CCM.0000000000002937"},{"key":"bibr5-0192623318799976","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1046\/j.1523-1755.2003.00737.x"},{"key":"bibr6-0192623318799976","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.4049\/jimmunol.177.5.3380"},{"key":"bibr7-0192623318799976","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s00467-017-3695-3"},{"key":"bibr8-0192623318799976","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1378\/chest.98.1.170"},{"key":"bibr9-0192623318799976","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1172\/JCI37829"},{"key":"bibr10-0192623318799976","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1172\/JCI200112080"},{"key":"bibr11-0192623318799976","first-page":"441","volume":"10","author":"Bussolati B.","year":"2002","journal-title":"Int J Mol Med"},{"key":"bibr12-0192623318799976","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.2353\/ajpath.2007.070061"},{"key":"bibr13-0192623318799976","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/ki.1997.502"},{"key":"bibr14-0192623318799976","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1152\/ajprenal.00716.2009"},{"key":"bibr15-0192623318799976","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1074\/jbc.274.16.10689"},{"key":"bibr16-0192623318799976","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0183701"},{"key":"bibr17-0192623318799976","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1681\/ASN.2012040338"},{"key":"bibr18-0192623318799976","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/B978-0-12-801238-3.64220-4"},{"key":"bibr19-0192623318799976","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.4049\/jimmunol.176.5.3108"},{"key":"bibr20-0192623318799976","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.toxlet.2013.01.007"},{"key":"bibr21-0192623318799976","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1046\/j.1523-1755.2001.00944.x"},{"key":"bibr22-0192623318799976","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.4049\/jimmunol.170.7.3883"},{"key":"bibr23-0192623318799976","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.kint.2017.01.009"},{"key":"bibr24-0192623318799976","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/sj.ki.5002132"},{"key":"bibr25-0192623318799976","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1152\/ajprenal.00414.2005"},{"key":"bibr26-0192623318799976","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/nrneph.2015.214"},{"key":"bibr27-0192623318799976","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1124\/jpet.107.119792"},{"key":"bibr28-0192623318799976","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1128\/IAI.65.11.4822-4831.1997"},{"key":"bibr29-0192623318799976","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1523-1755.2004.761_3.x"},{"key":"bibr30-0192623318799976","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.trim.2009.07.005"},{"key":"bibr31-0192623318799976","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1152\/ajprenal.00035.2011"},{"key":"bibr32-0192623318799976","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1097\/00007890-199502270-00022"},{"key":"bibr33-0192623318799976","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1097\/SHK.0000000000000052"},{"key":"bibr34-0192623318799976","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/ki.2012.328"},{"key":"bibr35-0192623318799976","first-page":"1","author":"Han H. 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