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Probiotics have been advocated as an adjunct therapy that could have an impact on psychiatric symptoms by normalizing the gut immune mechanisms.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Aims<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>This meta-analysis evaluated whether probiotic supplementation improves psychiatric symptoms in patients with schizophrenia or depression.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Methodology<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>A systematic search of multiple databases identified randomized controlled trials (RCTs) that tested probiotic interventions in these populations. Eligible studies were analyzed for pooled effect sizes, heterogeneity, and publication bias.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Findings<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>\n                      Thirteen RCTs (\n                      <jats:italic toggle=\"yes\">n<\/jats:italic>\n                      \u2009=\u2009893 participants) were included. Meta-analysis revealed no significant difference in PANSS score reduction between probiotic and placebo groups of schizophrenia patients (\n                      <jats:italic toggle=\"yes\">P<\/jats:italic>\n                      \u2009=\u2009.546). However, a significant pooled standardized mean difference between intervention and control groups was found (\n                      <jats:italic toggle=\"yes\">P<\/jats:italic>\n                      \u2009=\u2009.043). Significant heterogeneity was observed, and subgroup analyses indicated variations in outcomes based on geographic region and ethnicity. A potential moderating effect of vitamin D status was identified as a factor requiring future study.\n                    <\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Conclusion<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>Currently, there is no evidence that probiotics consistently improve depression or schizophrenia. The significance of subgroup analysis raises questions and emphasizes the necessity of carefully planned, sufficiently powered studies to determine whether probiotic efficacy is influenced by particular populations, settings, or supplemental techniques.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>","DOI":"10.1177\/02601060251395942","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,11,19]],"date-time":"2025-11-19T18:35:54Z","timestamp":1763577354000},"page":"1743-1756","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1177\/sage-journals-update-policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Evaluating the efficacy of probiotics in schizophrenia and depression: A meta-analysis of clinical outcomes and subgroup effects"],"prefix":"10.1177","volume":"32","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0002-1971-6837","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Xin Yi","family":"Tai","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Universiti Tunku Abdul Rahman"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-5089-1548","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Shiau Foon","family":"Tee","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Universiti Tunku Abdul Rahman"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-5155-655X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Pek Yee","family":"Tang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Mechatronics and BioMedical Engineering, Lee Kong Chian Faculty of Engineering and Science, Universiti Tunku Abdul Rahman, Cheras, Malaysia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"179","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,11,19]]},"reference":[{"key":"e_1_3_3_2_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.nut.2015.09.003"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_3_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms23094494"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_4_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ctim.2020.102361"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_5_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3389\/fnut.2023.1173660"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_6_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3390\/nu13124472"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_7_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/acps.13434"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_8_1","first-page":"70","article-title":"The microbiota: an exercise immunology perspective","volume":"21","author":"Bermon S","year":"2015","unstructured":"Bermon S, Petriz B, Kaj\u0117nien\u0117 A, et al. 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