{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,2]],"date-time":"2026-05-02T09:58:56Z","timestamp":1777715936885,"version":"3.51.4"},"reference-count":48,"publisher":"SAGE Publications","issue":"3-4","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2003,3,1]],"date-time":"2003-03-01T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1046476800000},"content-version":"tdm","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/journals.sagepub.com\/page\/policies\/text-and-data-mining-license"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["The International Journal of Robotics Research"],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2003,3]]},"abstract":"<jats:p>Our goal is to use intelligent biological inspiration to develop robots that capture the capacity of animals to traverse complex terrain. We follow two distinct but complementary strategies to meet this goal. In one, we have produced a series of robots that have mechanical and control designs increasingly more similar to those of a cockroach. The leg designs of these robots ensure that they can generate movements used by the cockroach to walk and climb over a range of objects. However, in order to take advantage of these complex designs, we must first solve difficult problems in actuation, proprioception and control. The second parallel strategy seeks to capture the principles of biological movement, but in an abstract form that does not require complex platforms. Following the second strategy, we designed and built two new robots that each use only one propulsion motor to generate a nominal tripod gait. Gait changes similar to those used by the animal are accomplished through passive mechanisms. Rearing movements in anticipation of climbing are accomplished by way of a body flexion joint, which also allows the robot to avoid high-centering. The parallel development of these robotic lines provides the best of both worlds. The multi-segmented leg designs will ultimately be more versatile and agile than the abstracted line, but will take more effort to perfect. The simplified line provides short-term solutions that can be deployed immediately and confirm, in principle, the value of biological properties for complex locomotion.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1177\/0278364903022003003","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2003,7,1]],"date-time":"2003-07-01T18:06:05Z","timestamp":1057082765000},"page":"169-186","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":88,"title":["Parallel Complementary Strategies for Implementing Biological Principles into                Mobile Robots"],"prefix":"10.1177","volume":"22","author":[{"given":"Roger D.","family":"Quinn","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering Case Western Reserve                        University Cleveland, Ohio, USA"}]},{"given":"Gabriel M.","family":"Nelson","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering Case Western Reserve                        University Cleveland, Ohio, USA"}]},{"given":"Richard J.","family":"Bachmann","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering Case Western Reserve                        University Cleveland, Ohio, USA"}]},{"given":"Daniel A.","family":"Kingsley","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering Case Western Reserve                        University Cleveland, Ohio, USA"}]},{"given":"John T.","family":"Offi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering Case Western Reserve                        University Cleveland, Ohio, USA"}]},{"given":"Thomas J.","family":"Allen","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering Case Western Reserve                        University Cleveland, Ohio, USA"}]},{"given":"Roy E.","family":"Ritzmann","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Biology Case Western Reserve University Cleveland, Ohio, USA"}]}],"member":"179","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2003,3,1]]},"reference":[{"key":"atypb1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1177\/027836499000900205"},{"key":"atypb2","unstructured":"Bachmann, R. J., Nelson, G. M., Quinn, R. D., Watson, J., Tryba, A. K., and Ritzmann, R. E. 1998. Construction of a Cockroach-like Hexapod Robot . In Proc. 6th IASTED Int. Conf. on Robotics and Automation, Banff, Canada, pp. 22-27 ."},{"key":"atypb3","unstructured":"Beer, R. D. 1990. Intelligence as Adaptive Behavior: An Experiment in Computational Neuroethology, Academic Press, New York ."},{"key":"atypb4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Berns, K., Cordes, S., and Ilg, W. 1994. Adaptive, neural control architecture for the walking machine lauron . In Proc. IEEE\/RSJ Int. Conf. on Intelligent Robots and Systems, M\u00fcnchen, pp. 1172-1177 .","DOI":"10.1109\/IROS.1994.407466"},{"key":"atypb5","unstructured":"Berns, K., Albiez, J., Kepplin, V., and Hillenbrand, C. 2001. Airbug\u2014Insect-like machine actuated by fluidic muscle . In Proc. 4th Int. Conf. on Climbing and Walking Robots, K. Berns and R. Dillman, eds, pp. 237-244 ."},{"key":"atypb6","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/37.341863"},{"key":"atypb7","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/70.481753"},{"key":"atypb8","unstructured":"Colbrunn, R. W., Nelson, G. M., and Quinn R. D. 2001. Design and control of a robotic leg with braided pneumatic actuators . In Proc. IEEE IROS, Maui, Hawaii."},{"key":"atypb9","unstructured":"Cooke, D. S., Hewer, N. D., White, T. S., Galt, S., and Luk, B. L. 1999. Implementation of modularity in Robug IV\u2014Preliminary results. In CLAWAR99, G. S. Virk, M. Randall, and D. Howard, eds, Professional Engineering Publishing, London , pp. 393-404."},{"key":"atypb10","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/0166-2236(90)90057-H"},{"key":"atypb11","unstructured":"Davis, S. T., and Caldwell, D. G. 2001. The bio-mimetic design of a robot primate using pneumatic muscle actuators . In Proc. 4th Int. Conf. on Climbing and Walking Robots, K. Berns and R. Dillman, eds, Professional Engineering Publishing, London, pp. 197-204 ."},{"key":"atypb12","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/S0921-8890(99)00062-7"},{"key":"atypb13","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1177\/105971239300100404"},{"key":"atypb14","unstructured":"Espenschied, K. S., Quinn, R. D., Chiel, H. J., and Beer, R. D. 1994. Robotics and Manufacturing, M. Jamshidi, C. Nguyen, R. Lumia, and J. Yuh, eds, ASME, New York , Vol. 5."},{"key":"atypb15","unstructured":"Espenschied, K. S., Quinn, R. D., Chiel, H. J., and Beer, R. D. 1995. Biologically-inspired hexapod robot project: Robot II . In IEEE Int. Conf. on Robotics and Automation (ICRA) Video Proceedings, Nagoya Congress Center, Nagoya, Japan."},{"key":"atypb16","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/0921-8890(96)00003-6"},{"key":"atypb17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Full, R. J., Blickhan, R., and Ting, L. H. 1991. Leg design in hexapedal runners . Journal of Experimental Biology 158: 369-390 .","DOI":"10.1242\/jeb.158.1.369"},{"key":"atypb18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Gassmann, B., Scholl, K. U., and Berns, K. 2001. Locomotion of LAURON III in rough terrain . In Proc. IEEE\/ASME Int. Conf. on Advanced Intelligent Mechatronics (2): 959-964 .","DOI":"10.1109\/AIM.2001.936810"},{"key":"atypb19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hollerbach, J. M., and Suh, K. C. 1985. Redundancy resolution of manipulators through torque optimization . In Proc. IEEE Int. Conf. on Robotics and Automation, St Louis, IEEE, New York, pp. 1016-1021 .","DOI":"10.1109\/ROBOT.1985.1087285"},{"key":"atypb20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Horak, F. B., and Macpherson, J. M. 1996. Postural orientation and equilibrium. In Handbook of Physiology, Oxford University Press, New York , pp. 255-292.","DOI":"10.1002\/cphy.cp120107"},{"key":"atypb21","unstructured":"Inoue, K. 1987. Rubbertuators and applications for robots . In Proc. 4th Symp. on Robotics Research, Tokyo, pp. 57-63 ."},{"key":"atypb22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Jindrich, D. L., and Full, R. J. 1999. Many-legged maneuverability: dynamics of turning in hexapods . Journal of Experimental Biology 202(12): 1603-1623 .","DOI":"10.1242\/jeb.202.12.1603"},{"key":"atypb23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Jindrich, D. L., and Full R. J. 2002. Dynamic stabilization of rapid hexapedal locomotion . Journal of Experimental Biology 205: 2803-2823 .","DOI":"10.1242\/jeb.205.18.2803"},{"key":"atypb24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kaliyamoorthy, S., Zill, S. N., Quinn, R. D., Ritzmann, R. E., and Choi, J. 2001. Finite element analysis of strains in a Blaberus cockroach leg during climbing . In Proc. Int. Conf. on Intelligent Robots and Systems (IROS'01), Maui, HI, pp. 833-838 .","DOI":"10.1109\/IROS.2001.976272"},{"key":"atypb25","unstructured":"Kepplin, V., and Berns, K. 1999. A concept for walking behavior in rough terrain. In Climbing and Walking Robots, G. S. Virk, M. Randall, and D. Howard, eds, Professional Engineering Publishing, London ."},{"key":"atypb26","unstructured":"Kingsley, D. A. 2001. A study of the viability of braided pneumatic actuators for use on walking robots. M.S. Thesis. Case Western Reserve University, Ohio, USA."},{"key":"atypb27","unstructured":"Kirchner F., and Spenneberg, D. 2001. Omnidirectional walking in multi-pod-robots based on feedback driven oscillators and local reflex mechanisms . In Proc. 4th Int. Conf. on Climbing and Walking Robots, K. Berns and R. Dillman, eds, Professional Engineering Publishing, London, pp. 197-204 ."},{"key":"atypb28","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s002210050712"},{"key":"atypb29","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1177\/027836499101000504"},{"key":"atypb30","unstructured":"Nelson, G. M., and Quinn, R. D. 1995. A Lagrangian formulation in terms of quasicoordinates for dynamic simulations of multibody systems such as insects and robots . In Proc. ASME Int. Mechanical Engineering Congress and Expo., San Francisco, CA."},{"key":"atypb31","unstructured":"Nelson, G. M., and Quinn, R. D. 1998. Posture control of a cockroach-like robot . In IEEE Int. Conf. on Robotics and Automation (ICRA'98) Video Proceedings, Belgium."},{"key":"atypb32","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/37.753930"},{"key":"atypb33","unstructured":"Nelson, G. M., and Quinn, R. D. 2000. A Lagrangian quasicoordinate formulation for dynamic simulations of multibody systems . Journal of the Chinese Society of Mechanical Engineers 21(1): 25-33 ."},{"key":"atypb34","unstructured":"Nelson, G. M., and Quinn, R. D. 2001. A numerical solution to inverse kinematics for swing control . In Proc. CLAWAR 2001."},{"key":"atypb35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Nickel, V. L., Perry, J., and Garrett, A. L. 1963. Development of useful function in the severely paralyzed hand . Journal of Bone and Joint Surgery 45A(5): 933-952 .","DOI":"10.2106\/00004623-196345050-00004"},{"key":"atypb36","unstructured":"Pfeiffer, F., Eltze, J., and Weidemann. 1994. The TUM walking machine. In Intelligent Automation and Soft Computing 2, M. Jamshidi, C. Nguyen, R. Lumia, and J. Yuh, eds, TSI Press, Albuquerque, NM ."},{"key":"atypb37","unstructured":"Powers, A. C. 1996. Research in the design and construction of biologically-inspired robots. M.S. Thesis, University of California, Berkeley."},{"key":"atypb38","unstructured":"Pratt, J., Dilworth, P., and Pratt, G. 1997. Virtual model control of a bipedal walking robot . In Proc. IEEE Int. Conf. on Robotics and Automation, Albuquerque, NM."},{"key":"atypb39","unstructured":"Pratt, G. A. 1999. Legged robots at MIT\u2014What's new since Raibert? In Proc. 1999 Int. Conf. on Climbing and Walking Robots, G. S. Virk, M. Randall, and D. Howard, eds, Professional Engineering Publishing, London, pp. 393-404 ."},{"key":"atypb40","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1152\/jn.1997.77.6.3237"},{"key":"atypb41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Prochazka, A., Gritsenko, V., and Yakovenko, S. 2002. Sensory control of locomotion: reflexes versus higher-level control. In Sensorimotor Control, S. G. Gandevia. U. Proske, and D. G. Stuart, eds, Kluwer Academic\/Plenum, London .","DOI":"10.1007\/978-1-4615-0713-0_41"},{"key":"atypb42","unstructured":"Quinn, R. D., Kingsley, D. A., Offi, J. T., and Ritzmann, R. E. 2002. Vehicle with compliant drive train. Patent pending."},{"key":"atypb43","unstructured":"Quinn, R. D., and Espenschied, K. S. 1993. Control of a hexapod robot using a biologically inspired neural network. In Biological Neural Networks in Invertebrate Neuroethology and Robotics, R. D. Beer, R. E. Ritzmann, and T. M. McKenna, eds, Academic, New York , pp. 365-382."},{"key":"atypb44","unstructured":"Quinn, R. D., Nelson, G. M., Bachmann, R. J., Kingsley, D. A., Offi, J., and Ritzmann, R. E. 2001. Insect designs for improved robot mobility . In Proc. 4th Int. Conf. on Climbing and Walking Robots, K. Berns and R. Dillman, eds, Professional Engineering Publishing, London, pp. 69-76 ."},{"key":"atypb45","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1641\/0006-3568(2000)050[0023:IWABAR]2.3.CO;2"},{"key":"atypb46","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1177\/02783640122067570"},{"key":"atypb47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Watson, J. T., and Ritzmann R. D. 1998. Leg kinematics and muscle activity during treadmill running in the cockroach, Blaberus discoidalis: I. Slow running . Journal of Computational Physiology A 182: 11-22 .","DOI":"10.1007\/s003590050153"},{"key":"atypb48","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s00359-002-0277-y"}],"container-title":["The International Journal of Robotics Research"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/journals.sagepub.com\/doi\/pdf\/10.1177\/0278364903022003003","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/journals.sagepub.com\/doi\/pdf\/10.1177\/0278364903022003003","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,29]],"date-time":"2026-04-29T10:16:55Z","timestamp":1777457815000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/journals.sagepub.com\/doi\/10.1177\/0278364903022003003"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2003,3]]},"references-count":48,"journal-issue":{"issue":"3-4","published-print":{"date-parts":[[2003,3]]}},"alternative-id":["10.1177\/0278364903022003003"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1177\/0278364903022003003","relation":{},"ISSN":["0278-3649","1741-3176"],"issn-type":[{"value":"0278-3649","type":"print"},{"value":"1741-3176","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2003,3]]}}}