{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,18]],"date-time":"2026-03-18T14:08:22Z","timestamp":1773842902909,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":42,"publisher":"SAGE Publications","issue":"11-12","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2009,8,20]],"date-time":"2009-08-20T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1250726400000},"content-version":"tdm","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/journals.sagepub.com\/page\/policies\/text-and-data-mining-license"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["The International Journal of Robotics Research"],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2009,11]]},"abstract":"<jats:p> Physical human\u2014robot interaction and cooperation has become a topic of increasing importance and of major focus in robotics research. An essential requirement of a robot designed for high mobility and direct interaction with human users or uncertain environments is that it must in no case pose a threat to the human. Until recently, quite a few attempts were made to investigate real-world threats via collision tests and use the outcome to considerably improve safety during physical human\u2014robot interaction. In this paper, we give an overview of our systematic evaluation of safety in human\u2014robot interaction, covering various aspects of the most significant injury mechanisms. In order to quantify the potential injury risk emanating from such a manipulator, impact tests with the DLR-Lightweight Robot III were carried out using standard automobile crash test facilities at the German Automobile Club (ADAC). Based on these tests, several industrial robots of different weight have been evaluated and the influence of the robot mass and velocity have been investigated. The evaluated non-constrained impacts would only partially capture the nature of human\u2014robot safety. A possibly constrained environment and its effect on the resulting human injuries are discussed and evaluated from different perspectives. As well as such impact tests and simulations, we have analyzed the problem of the quasi-static constrained impact, which could pose a serious threat to the human even for low-inertia robots under certain circumstances. Finally, possible injuries relevant in robotics are summarized and systematically classified. <\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1177\/0278364909343970","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2009,8,21]],"date-time":"2009-08-21T01:25:56Z","timestamp":1250817956000},"page":"1507-1527","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":374,"title":["Requirements for Safe Robots: Measurements, Analysis and New Insights"],"prefix":"10.1177","volume":"28","author":[{"given":"Sami","family":"Haddadin","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Robotics and Mechatronics, DLR-German Aerospace Center, P.O.                         Box 1116, D-82230 Wessling, Germany,"}]},{"given":"Alin","family":"Albu-Sch\u00e4ffer","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Robotics and Mechatronics, DLR-German Aerospace Center, P.O.                         Box 1116, D-82230 Wessling, Germany,"}]},{"given":"Gerd","family":"Hirzinger","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Robotics and Mechatronics, DLR-German Aerospace Center, P.O.                         Box 1116, D-82230 Wessling, Germany,"}]}],"member":"179","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2009,8,20]]},"reference":[{"key":"atypb1","volume-title":"The Abbreviated Injury Scale","author":"Aaam","year":"1980"},{"key":"atypb2","volume-title":"The Abbreviated Injury Scale (1990) Revision Update 1998","author":"Aaam","year":"1998"},{"key":"atypb3","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1108\/01439910710774386"},{"key":"atypb4","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1177\/0278364907073776"},{"key":"atypb5","volume-title":"Proceedings of the Stapp Car Crash Conference, November 1991, SAE Paper No. 912907","author":"Allsop, D.L."},{"key":"atypb6","volume-title":"Proceedings of the 32th Stapp Car Crash Conference, SAE Paper No. 881719","author":"Allsop, D.L."},{"key":"atypb7","volume-title":"The Caves of Steel, A Robot Novel","author":"Asimov, I.","year":"1954"},{"key":"atypb8","volume-title":"International Workshop on Advanced Motion Control","author":"Bicchi, A."},{"key":"atypb9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"22","DOI":"10.1109\/MRA.2004.1310939","volume":"11","author":"Bicchi, A.","year":"2004","journal-title":"IEEE Robotics and Automation Magazine"},{"key":"atypb10","volume-title":"A discussion paper. 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