{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,18]],"date-time":"2026-02-18T22:46:09Z","timestamp":1771454769413,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":79,"publisher":"SAGE Publications","issue":"1","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2019,11,25]],"date-time":"2019-11-25T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1574640000000},"content-version":"unspecified","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"http:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100000266","name":"Engineering and Physical Sciences Research Council","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["EP\/J01205X\/1"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["EP\/J01205X\/1"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100000266","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100000266","name":"Engineering and Physical Sciences Research Council","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["EP\/K006193\/1"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["EP\/K006193\/1"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100000266","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100000266","name":"Engineering and Physical Sciences Research Council","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["EP\/K006223\/1"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["EP\/K006223\/1"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100000266","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100000266","name":"Engineering and Physical Sciences Research Council","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["EP\/K006320\/1"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["EP\/K006320\/1"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100000266","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100000266","name":"Engineering and Physical Sciences Research Council","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["EP\/N007565\/1"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["EP\/N007565\/1"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100000266","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100000266","name":"Engineering and Physical Sciences Research Council","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["EP\/R026084\/1"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["EP\/R026084\/1"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100000266","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100000266","name":"Engineering and Physical Sciences Research Council","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["EP\/R026092\/1"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["EP\/R026092\/1"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100000266","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100000266","name":"Engineering and Physical Sciences Research Council","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["EP\/R026173\/1"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["EP\/R026173\/1"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100000266","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":["journals.sagepub.com"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["The International Journal of Robotics Research"],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2020,1]]},"abstract":"<jats:p> We present an approach for the verification and validation (V&amp;V) of robot assistants in the context of human\u2013robot interactions, to demonstrate their trustworthiness through corroborative evidence of their safety and functional correctness. Key challenges include the complex and unpredictable nature of the real world in which assistant and service robots operate, the limitations on available V&amp;V techniques when used individually, and the consequent lack of confidence in the V&amp;V results. Our approach, called corroborative V&amp;V, addresses these challenges by combining several different V&amp;V techniques; in this paper we use formal verification (model checking), simulation-based testing, and user validation in experiments with a real robot. This combination of approaches allows V&amp;V of the human\u2013robot interaction task at different levels of modeling detail and thoroughness of exploration, thus overcoming the individual limitations of each technique. We demonstrate our approach through a handover task, the most critical part of a complex cooperative manufacturing scenario, for which we propose safety and liveness requirements to verify and validate. Should the resulting V&amp;V evidence present discrepancies, an iterative process between the different V&amp;V techniques takes place until corroboration between the V&amp;V techniques is gained from refining and improving the assets (i.e., system and requirement models) to represent the human\u2013robot interaction task in a more truthful manner. Therefore, corroborative V&amp;V affords a systematic approach to \u201cmeta-V&amp;V,\u201d in which different V&amp;V techniques can be used to corroborate and check one another, increasing the level of certainty in the results of V&amp;V. <\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1177\/0278364919883338","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2019,11,25]],"date-time":"2019-11-25T13:38:15Z","timestamp":1574689095000},"page":"73-99","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1177\/sage-journals-update-policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":53,"title":["A corroborative approach to verification and validation of human\u2013robot teams"],"prefix":"10.1177","volume":"39","author":[{"given":"Matt","family":"Webster","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Computer Science, University of Liverpool, UK"}]},{"given":"David","family":"Western","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Computer Science, University of Bristol, UK"}]},{"given":"Dejanira","family":"Araiza-Illan","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Computer Science, University of Bristol, UK"}]},{"given":"Clare","family":"Dixon","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Computer Science, University of Liverpool, UK"}]},{"given":"Kerstin","family":"Eder","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Computer Science, University of Bristol, UK"},{"name":"Bristol Robotics Laboratory, UK"}]},{"given":"Michael","family":"Fisher","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Computer Science, University of Liverpool, UK"}]},{"given":"Anthony G","family":"Pipe","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Bristol Robotics Laboratory, UK"},{"name":"Faculty of Environment and Technology, University of the West of England, UK"}]}],"member":"179","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2019,11,25]]},"reference":[{"issue":"2","key":"bibr1-0278364919883338","first-page":"119","volume":"52","author":"Agresti A","year":"1998","journal-title":"The American Statistician"},{"key":"bibr2-0278364919883338","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3182\/20140824-6-ZA-1003.02531"},{"key":"bibr3-0278364919883338","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/IROS.2006.6936985"},{"key":"bibr4-0278364919883338","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-319-26287-1_5"},{"key":"bibr5-0278364919883338","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-319-40379-3_3"},{"key":"bibr6-0278364919883338","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-642-40793-2_4"},{"key":"bibr7-0278364919883338","volume-title":"Principles of Model Checking","author":"Baier C","year":"2008"},{"key":"bibr8-0278364919883338","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1108\/17563780911005818"},{"key":"bibr9-0278364919883338","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1145\/1514095.1514169"},{"key":"bibr10-0278364919883338","first-page":"659","volume-title":"2nd international conference on simulation, modeling, and programming for autonomous robots, SIMPAR 2010","author":"Broenink JF","year":"2010"},{"key":"bibr11-0278364919883338","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/10722167_15"},{"key":"bibr12-0278364919883338","volume-title":"Model Checking","author":"Clarke EM","year":"1999"},{"key":"bibr13-0278364919883338","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-642-35746-6_1"},{"key":"bibr14-0278364919883338","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1145\/337180.337625"},{"key":"bibr15-0278364919883338","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-319-10401-0_9"},{"key":"bibr16-0278364919883338","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.robot.2012.03.003"},{"key":"bibr17-0278364919883338","first-page":"133","volume-title":"Formal Methods for Industrial Critical Systems: A Survey of Applications","author":"Duflot M","year":"2013"},{"key":"bibr18-0278364919883338","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/ROMAN.2014.6926328"},{"key":"bibr19-0278364919883338","unstructured":"Event-B (2019) Event-B, and the Rodin platform. Available at: http:\/\/www.event-b.org\/ (accessed 1 October 2019)."},{"key":"bibr20-0278364919883338","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/9781119991472"},{"key":"bibr21-0278364919883338","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/978-1-4612-2360-3"},{"key":"bibr22-0278364919883338","volume-title":"Assertion-based Design","author":"Foster H","year":"2004","edition":"2"},{"key":"bibr23-0278364919883338","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-319-67113-0_8"},{"key":"bibr24-0278364919883338","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.scico.2011.10.003"},{"key":"bibr25-0278364919883338","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/3-540-44585-4_6"},{"key":"bibr26-0278364919883338","unstructured":"GitHub (2019) Robosafe\/testbench_ABV. Available at: https:\/\/github.com\/robosafe\/testbench_ABV (accessed 1 October 2019)."},{"key":"bibr27-0278364919883338","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-642-23232-9_29"},{"key":"bibr28-0278364919883338","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/ICORR.2013.6650433"},{"key":"bibr29-0278364919883338","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-319-24255-2_23"},{"key":"bibr30-0278364919883338","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/3-540-46002-0_24"},{"key":"bibr31-0278364919883338","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/978-0-85729-133-2_1"},{"key":"bibr32-0278364919883338","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-319-40379-3_15"},{"issue":"5","key":"bibr33-0278364919883338","first-page":"607","volume":"13","author":"Heitmeyer C","year":"2007","journal-title":"Journal of Computer Science"},{"key":"bibr34-0278364919883338","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-319-11164-3_20"},{"key":"bibr35-0278364919883338","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-319-14484-9_16"},{"key":"bibr36-0278364919883338","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/SESENA.2013.6612261"},{"key":"bibr37-0278364919883338","unstructured":"ISO 10218-1:2011 (2011) Robots and robotic devices\u2014Safety requirements for industrial robots\u2014Part 1: Robots."},{"key":"bibr38-0278364919883338","unstructured":"ISO 13482:2014 (2014) ISO Robots and robotic devices\u2014Safety requirements for personal care robots."},{"key":"bibr39-0278364919883338","unstructured":"ISO\/TS 15066:2016 (2016) Robots and robotic devices\u2014Collaborative robots."},{"key":"bibr40-0278364919883338","first-page":"329","volume-title":"Hybrid Systems: Computation and Control. HSCC 2007","author":"Julius AA","year":"2007"},{"key":"bibr41-0278364919883338","volume-title":"Proceedings of dependable systems and networks 2004: Workshop on assurance cases: Best practices, possible obstacles, and future opportunities","author":"Kelly T","year":"2004"},{"key":"bibr42-0278364919883338","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1177\/0278364906072513"},{"key":"bibr43-0278364919883338","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1162\/NECO_a_00493"},{"key":"bibr44-0278364919883338","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/TCBB.2014.2362531"},{"key":"bibr45-0278364919883338","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.robot.2011.10.005"},{"key":"bibr46-0278364919883338","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-642-22110-1_47"},{"key":"bibr47-0278364919883338","unstructured":"LAAS CNRS (2016) MORSE, the Modular OpenRobots Simulation Engine. Available at: https:\/\/www.openrobots.org\/wiki\/morse (accessed 1 October 2019)."},{"key":"bibr48-0278364919883338","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/IROS.2012.6385849"},{"key":"bibr49-0278364919883338","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/ICHR.2010.5686319"},{"key":"bibr50-0278364919883338","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-642-32527-4_23"},{"key":"bibr51-0278364919883338","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3182\/20130626-3-AU-2035.00034"},{"key":"bibr52-0278364919883338","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/ICMA.2006.257628"},{"key":"bibr53-0278364919883338","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/11901433_33"},{"key":"bibr54-0278364919883338","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1177\/0278364917733549"},{"key":"bibr55-0278364919883338","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/978-81-322-2247-7_40"},{"issue":"4","key":"bibr56-0278364919883338","first-page":"20","volume":"2","author":"Naks T","year":"2009","journal-title":"ITEA"},{"key":"bibr57-0278364919883338","first-page":"609","volume-title":"2nd international conference on model-driven engineering and software development (MODELSWARD)","author":"Nielsen B","year":"2014"},{"key":"bibr58-0278364919883338","unstructured":"Open Source Robotics Foundation (2014) GAZEBO: Robot simulation made easy. Available at: http:\/\/gazebosim.org\/ (accessed 1 October 2019)."},{"key":"bibr59-0278364919883338","unstructured":"Open Source Robotics Foundation (2019) ROS. Available at: http:\/\/www.ros.org\/ (accessed 1 October 2019)."},{"key":"bibr60-0278364919883338","unstructured":"Parker D. (2015) PRISM 4.2.1 Manual. Oxford: Department of Computer Science, University of Oxford. (accessed 18 May 2015) http:\/\/www.prismmodelchecker.org."},{"key":"bibr61-0278364919883338","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.5772\/53939."},{"key":"bibr62-0278364919883338","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-540-89076-8_20"},{"key":"bibr63-0278364919883338","first-page":"751","volume-title":"CONTROLO \u20192014\u2014Proceedings of the 11th Portuguese Conference on Automatic Control","author":"Pinho T","year":"2014"},{"key":"bibr64-0278364919883338","volume-title":"Biomimetics: Nature-Based Innovation","author":"Pipe AG","year":"2011"},{"key":"bibr65-0278364919883338","volume-title":"Functional Verification Coverage Measurement and Analysis","author":"Piziali A","year":"2004"},{"key":"bibr66-0278364919883338","first-page":"66","volume-title":"MORSE 2014\u20141st international workshop on model-driven robot software engineering","volume":"1319","author":"Ringert JO","year":"2014"},{"key":"bibr67-0278364919883338","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1145\/268437.268448"},{"key":"bibr68-0278364919883338","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1057\/jos.2012.20"},{"key":"bibr69-0278364919883338","unstructured":"Smith R. (2019) Open dynamics engine. Available at: http:\/\/www.ode.org (accessed 1 October 2019)."},{"key":"bibr70-0278364919883338","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/QRS.2017.25"},{"key":"bibr71-0278364919883338","unstructured":"University of Oxford (2019) FDR4. Available at: https:\/\/www.cs.ox.ac.uk\/projects\/fdr\/ (accessed 25 October 2019)."},{"key":"bibr72-0278364919883338","unstructured":"Uppsala Universitet and Aalborg University (2015) UPPAAL. Available at: http:\/\/www.uppaal.org (accessed 1 October 2019)."},{"key":"bibr73-0278364919883338","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-642-15651-9_26"},{"key":"bibr74-0278364919883338","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.2514\/1.I010096"},{"key":"bibr75-0278364919883338","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.17638\/datacat.liverpool.ac.uk\/446."},{"key":"bibr76-0278364919883338","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/THMS.2015.2425139"},{"key":"bibr77-0278364919883338","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.5523\/bris.gw4qbvkmmekl1rlkgaqskdtyd."},{"key":"bibr78-0278364919883338","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-540-24721-0_24"},{"key":"bibr79-0278364919883338","unstructured":"YARP (2019) Welcome to YARP. Available at: http:\/\/www.yarp.it\/ (accessed 1 October 2019)."}],"container-title":["The International Journal of Robotics Research"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/journals.sagepub.com\/doi\/pdf\/10.1177\/0278364919883338","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/journals.sagepub.com\/doi\/full-xml\/10.1177\/0278364919883338","content-type":"application\/xml","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/journals.sagepub.com\/doi\/pdf\/10.1177\/0278364919883338","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,3,1]],"date-time":"2025-03-01T21:05:06Z","timestamp":1740863106000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/journals.sagepub.com\/doi\/10.1177\/0278364919883338"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2019,11,25]]},"references-count":79,"journal-issue":{"issue":"1","published-print":{"date-parts":[[2020,1]]}},"alternative-id":["10.1177\/0278364919883338"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1177\/0278364919883338","relation":{},"ISSN":["0278-3649","1741-3176"],"issn-type":[{"value":"0278-3649","type":"print"},{"value":"1741-3176","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2019,11,25]]}}}