{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,3]],"date-time":"2026-06-03T02:03:59Z","timestamp":1780452239995,"version":"3.54.1"},"reference-count":53,"publisher":"SAGE Publications","issue":"4","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2019,12,27]],"date-time":"2019-12-27T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1577404800000},"content-version":"tdm","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/journals.sagepub.com\/page\/policies\/text-and-data-mining-license"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["journals.sagepub.com"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["The International Journal of Robotics Research"],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2020,3]]},"abstract":"<jats:p>Usability is one of the most important aspects of teleoperation. Ideally, the operator\u2019s experience should be one of complete command over the remote environment, but also be as close as possible to what they would have if physically present at the remote end, i.e., transparency in terms of both action and perception. These two aspects may coincide in favorable conditions, where classic approaches such as the four-channel architecture ensures transparency of the control framework. In the presence of substantial delays between the user and the slave, however, the stability\u2013performance trade-off inherent to bilateral teleoperation deteriorates not only transparency, but also command. An alternative, unilateral approach is given by tele-impedance, which controls the slave\u2013environment interaction by measuring and remotely replicating the user\u2019s limb endpoint position and impedance. Not including force feedback to the operator, tele-impedance is absolutely robust to delays, whereas it completely lacks transparency. This article introduces a novel control framework that integrates a new, fully transparent, two-channel bilateral architecture with the tele-impedance paradigm. The result is a unified solution that mitigates problems of classical approaches, and provides the user with additional tools to modulate the slave robot\u2019s physical interaction behavior, resulting in a better operator experience in spite of time inconsistencies. The validity and effectiveness of the proposed solution is demonstrated in terms of performance in the interaction tasks, of user fatigue and overall experience.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1177\/0278364919891773","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2019,12,27]],"date-time":"2019-12-27T06:29:10Z","timestamp":1577428150000},"page":"514-539","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1177\/sage-journals-update-policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":59,"title":["Unifying bilateral teleoperation and tele-impedance for enhanced user experience"],"prefix":"10.1177","volume":"39","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-1819-8276","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Marco","family":"Laghi","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Soft Robotics for Human Cooperation and Rehabilitation (SoftBots), Istituto Italiano di Tecnologia, Genoa, Italy"},{"name":"Centro di Ricerca \u201cE. Piaggio\u201d, Universita di Pisa, Pisa, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Arash","family":"Ajoudani","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Human\u2013Robot Interfaces and Physical Interaction (HRI2), Istituto Italiano di Tecnologia, Genoa, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-1950-6186","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Manuel G.","family":"Catalano","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Soft Robotics for Human Cooperation and Rehabilitation (SoftBots), Istituto Italiano di Tecnologia, Genoa, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Antonio","family":"Bicchi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Soft Robotics for Human Cooperation and Rehabilitation (SoftBots), Istituto Italiano di Tecnologia, Genoa, Italy"},{"name":"Centro di Ricerca \u201cE. 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