{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,18]],"date-time":"2026-03-18T13:27:34Z","timestamp":1773840454409,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":68,"publisher":"SAGE Publications","issue":"9","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2021,6,16]],"date-time":"2021-06-16T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1623801600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":365,"URL":"http:\/\/www.sagepub.com\/licence-information-for-chorus"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/100000005","name":"U.S. Department of Defense","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["National Defense Science & Engineering Graduate Fe"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["National Defense Science & Engineering Graduate Fe"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100000005","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/100000001","name":"National Science Foundation","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["1637764"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["1637764"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100000001","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":["journals.sagepub.com"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["The International Journal of Robotics Research"],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2020,8]]},"abstract":"<jats:p> Despite the fact that robotic platforms can provide both consistent practice and objective assessments of users over the course of their training, there are relatively few instances where physical human\u2013robot interaction has been significantly more effective than unassisted practice or human-mediated training. This article describes a hybrid shared control robot, which enhances task learning through kinesthetic feedback. The assistance assesses user actions using a task-specific evaluation criterion and selectively accepts or rejects them at each time instant. Through two human subject studies (total [Formula: see text]), we show that this hybrid approach of switching between full transparency and full rejection of user inputs leads to increased skill acquisition and short-term retention compared with unassisted practice. Moreover, we show that the shared control paradigm exhibits features previously shown to promote successful training. It avoids user passivity by only rejecting user actions and allowing failure at the task. It improves performance during assistance, providing meaningful task-specific feedback. It is sensitive to initial skill of the user and behaves as an \u201cassist-as-needed\u201d control scheme, adapting its engagement in real time based on the performance and needs of the user. Unlike other successful algorithms, it does not require explicit modulation of the level of impedance or error amplification during training and it is permissive to a range of strategies because of its evaluation criterion. We demonstrate that the proposed hybrid shared control paradigm with a task-based minimal intervention criterion significantly enhances task-specific training. <\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1177\/0278364920933654","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2020,6,16]],"date-time":"2020-06-16T12:00:54Z","timestamp":1592308854000},"page":"1138-1154","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1177\/sage-journals-update-policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":15,"title":["Task-based hybrid shared control for training through forceful interaction"],"prefix":"10.1177","volume":"39","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-9752-9925","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Kathleen","family":"Fitzsimons","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Mechanical Engineering, Northwestern University, Evanston, IL, USA"}]},{"given":"Aleksandra","family":"Kalinowska","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Mechanical Engineering, Northwestern University, Evanston, IL, USA"}]},{"given":"Julius P","family":"Dewald","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Physical Therapy and Human Movement Sciences, Northwestern University, Chicago, IL, USA"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-2262-8176","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Todd D","family":"Murphey","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Mechanical Engineering, Northwestern University, Evanston, IL, USA"}]}],"member":"179","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2020,6,16]]},"reference":[{"key":"bibr1-0278364920933654","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/TRO.2016.2596768"},{"key":"bibr2-0278364920933654","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0001775"},{"issue":"6","key":"bibr3-0278364920933654","first-page":"663","volume":"37","author":"Burgar CG","year":"2000","journal-title":"Journal of Rehabilitation Research and Development"},{"key":"bibr4-0278364920933654","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.nahs.2015.11.002"},{"key":"bibr5-0278364920933654","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/BIOROB.2008.4762927"},{"issue":"6","key":"bibr6-0278364920933654","first-page":"693","volume":"37","author":"Colombo G","year":"2000","journal-title":"Journal of Rehabilitation Research and Development"},{"key":"bibr7-0278364920933654","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1177\/1545968312439687"},{"key":"bibr8-0278364920933654","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1177\/0278364913490324"},{"key":"bibr9-0278364920933654","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/TNSRE.2009.2033061"},{"key":"bibr10-0278364920933654","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/TAC.2005.861711"},{"key":"bibr11-0278364920933654","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1186\/s12984-016-0203-0"},{"key":"bibr12-0278364920933654","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1152\/jn.01095.2006"},{"key":"bibr13-0278364920933654","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/TBME.2007.910683"},{"key":"bibr14-0278364920933654","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/TNSRE.2004.843173"},{"key":"bibr15-0278364920933654","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1212\/01.WNL.0000095963.00970.68"},{"key":"bibr16-0278364920933654","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/ACC.2016.7525614"},{"key":"bibr17-0278364920933654","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1523\/JNEUROSCI.05-07-01688.1985"},{"key":"bibr18-0278364920933654","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/CDC.2010.5717469"},{"key":"bibr19-0278364920933654","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1260\/174795407789705505"},{"key":"bibr20-0278364920933654","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1523\/JNEUROSCI.04-11-02745.1984"},{"key":"bibr21-0278364920933654","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1186\/1743-0003-3-12"},{"key":"bibr22-0278364920933654","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.15607\/RSS.2018.XIV.046"},{"key":"bibr23-0278364920933654","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1177\/0278364910397559"},{"key":"bibr24-0278364920933654","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-319-28603-7_9"},{"key":"bibr25-0278364920933654","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/B978-0-12-811995-2.00013-8"},{"key":"bibr26-0278364920933654","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1023\/A:1024494031121"},{"key":"bibr27-0278364920933654","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/TNSRE.2007.903899"},{"key":"bibr28-0278364920933654","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/HAPTIC.2010.5444635"},{"key":"bibr29-0278364920933654","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.2522\/ptj.20080180"},{"key":"bibr30-0278364920933654","first-page":"125","volume-title":"Symposium on Haptic Interfaces for Virtual Environment and Teleoperator Systems","author":"Li M","year":"2003"},{"key":"bibr31-0278364920933654","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMoa0911341"},{"key":"bibr32-0278364920933654","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1053\/apmr.2001.33101"},{"key":"bibr33-0278364920933654","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3200\/JMBR.40.6.545-557"},{"key":"bibr34-0278364920933654","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1186\/1743-0003-6-20"},{"key":"bibr35-0278364920933654","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s00221-013-3690-2"},{"key":"bibr36-0278364920933654","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.physd.2010.10.010"},{"key":"bibr37-0278364920933654","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1161\/STROKEAHA.113.003061"},{"key":"bibr38-0278364920933654","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/TRO.2015.2500441"},{"key":"bibr39-0278364920933654","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s00221-009-2014-z"},{"key":"bibr40-0278364920933654","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1115\/1.2168160"},{"key":"bibr41-0278364920933654","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1682\/JRRD.2005.05.0088"},{"key":"bibr42-0278364920933654","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s00221-005-0097-8"},{"key":"bibr43-0278364920933654","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/TRO.2015.2503726"},{"key":"bibr44-0278364920933654","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/SMC.2016.7844727"},{"key":"bibr45-0278364920933654","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/TOH.2012.40"},{"key":"bibr46-0278364920933654","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1682\/JRRD.2005.04.0076"},{"key":"bibr47-0278364920933654","unstructured":"R Core Team (2016) R: A Language and Environment for Statistical Computing. R Foundation for Statistical Computing, Vienna, Austria. Available at: https:\/\/www.R-project.org\/ (accessed 25 May 2020)."},{"key":"bibr48-0278364920933654","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1145\/3171221.3171278"},{"key":"bibr49-0278364920933654","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1613\/jair.5390"},{"key":"bibr50-0278364920933654","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/BIOROB.2010.5627788"},{"key":"bibr51-0278364920933654","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev.bioeng.6.040803.140223"},{"key":"bibr52-0278364920933654","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/IEMBS.2007.4353215"},{"key":"bibr53-0278364920933654","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/TNSRE.2005.848628"},{"key":"bibr54-0278364920933654","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/VRAIS.1993.380795"},{"key":"bibr55-0278364920933654","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1467-9280.1992.tb00029.x"},{"key":"bibr56-0278364920933654","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1523\/JNEUROSCI.14-05-03208.1994"},{"key":"bibr57-0278364920933654","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/TNSRE.2013.2250521"},{"key":"bibr58-0278364920933654","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/ICORR.2011.5975460"},{"key":"bibr59-0278364920933654","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/35037588"},{"key":"bibr60-0278364920933654","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/CDC.2015.7402901"},{"key":"bibr61-0278364920933654","author":"Tzorakoleftherakis E","year":"2018","journal-title":"IEEE Transactions on Automatic Control"},{"key":"bibr62-0278364920933654","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0087987"},{"key":"bibr63-0278364920933654","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s11910-005-0035-y"},{"key":"bibr64-0278364920933654","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1080\/19346182.2008.9648483"},{"key":"bibr65-0278364920933654","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/ACC.2012.6314919"},{"key":"bibr66-0278364920933654","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1080\/02701367.1994.10607635"},{"key":"bibr67-0278364920933654","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/TNSRE.2008.918389"},{"key":"bibr68-0278364920933654","first-page":"1121","volume-title":"IEEE International Conference Robotics and Automation","author":"Yu W","year":"2005"}],"container-title":["The International Journal of Robotics Research"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/journals.sagepub.com\/doi\/pdf\/10.1177\/0278364920933654","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/journals.sagepub.com\/doi\/full-xml\/10.1177\/0278364920933654","content-type":"application\/xml","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/journals.sagepub.com\/doi\/pdf\/10.1177\/0278364920933654","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"syndication"},{"URL":"https:\/\/journals.sagepub.com\/doi\/pdf\/10.1177\/0278364920933654","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,3,1]],"date-time":"2025-03-01T16:24:09Z","timestamp":1740846249000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/journals.sagepub.com\/doi\/10.1177\/0278364920933654"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2020,6,16]]},"references-count":68,"journal-issue":{"issue":"9","published-print":{"date-parts":[[2020,8]]}},"alternative-id":["10.1177\/0278364920933654"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1177\/0278364920933654","relation":{},"ISSN":["0278-3649","1741-3176"],"issn-type":[{"value":"0278-3649","type":"print"},{"value":"1741-3176","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2020,6,16]]}}}