{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,13]],"date-time":"2026-04-13T19:12:10Z","timestamp":1776107530450,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":56,"publisher":"SAGE Publications","issue":"12","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[1999,12,1]],"date-time":"1999-12-01T00:00:00Z","timestamp":944006400000},"content-version":"tdm","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/journals.sagepub.com\/page\/policies\/text-and-data-mining-license"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["The International Journal of Robotics Research"],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[1999,12]]},"abstract":"<jats:p> This paper reports the development of a robotic system designed to extend a human\u2019s ability to perform small-scale (sub-millimeter) manipulation tasks requiring human judgment, sensory integration, and hand-eye coordination. Our novel approach, which we call steady-hand micromanipulation, is for tools to be held simultaneously both by the operator\u2019s hand and a specially designed actively controlled robot arm. The robot\u2019s controller senses forces exerted by the operator on the tool and by the tool on the environment, and uses this information in various control modes to provide smooth, tremor-free, precise positional control and force scaling. Our goal is to develop a manipulation system with the precision and sensitivity of a machine, but with the manipulative transparency and immediacy of hand-held tools for tasks characterized by compliant or semi-rigid contacts with the environment. <\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1177\/02783649922067807","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2003,7,19]],"date-time":"2003-07-19T06:59:46Z","timestamp":1058597986000},"page":"1201-1210","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":403,"title":["A Steady-Hand Robotic System for Microsurgical Augmentation"],"prefix":"10.1177","volume":"18","author":[{"given":"Russell","family":"Taylor","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Computer Science, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, MD, USA"}]},{"given":"Pat","family":"Jensen","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Wilmer Eye Institute, Johns Hopkins Medical Institutions, Johns Hopkins                         University, Baltimore, MD, USA"}]},{"given":"Louis","family":"Whitcomb","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[]},{"given":"Aaron","family":"Barnes","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Mechanical Engineering, Johns Hopkins University,                         Baltimore, MD, USA"}]},{"given":"Rajesh","family":"Kumar","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Computer Science, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, MD, USA"}]},{"given":"Dan","family":"Stoianovici","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"James Buchanan Brady Urological Institute, Johns Hopkins Medical                         Institutions, Johns Hopkins University Baltimore, MD, USA"}]},{"given":"Puneet","family":"Gupta","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Wilmer Eye Institute, Johns Hopkins Medical Institutions, Johns Hopkins                         University Baltimore, MD, USA"}]},{"given":"Zhengxian","family":"Wang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Computer Science, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, MD, USA"}]},{"given":"Eugene","family":"Dejuan","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Wilmer Eye Institute, Johns Hopkins Medical Institutions, Johns Hopkins                         University Baltimore, MD, USA"}]},{"given":"Louis","family":"Kavoussi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"James Buchanan Brady Urological Institute, Johns Hopkins Medical                         Institutions, Johns Hopkins University Baltimore, MD, USA"}]}],"member":"179","published-online":{"date-parts":[[1999,12,1]]},"reference":[{"key":"atypb1","unstructured":"Bargar, W., etal. 1995 (Baltimore, MD). Robodoc Multicenter trial: An interim report . Proc. of the 2nd Intl. Symp. on Medical Robot. and Comp.Assisted Surgery, MRCAS \u201995. Pittsburgh, PA: C\/O Center for Orthop. Res., Shadyside Hospital."},{"key":"atypb2","unstructured":"Bishoff, J. T., et al. 1998. RCM-PAKY: Clinical application of a new robotic system for precise needle placement . J. Endourology 12: S82-S82 ."},{"key":"atypb3","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1089\/end.1998.12.237"},{"key":"atypb4","unstructured":"Charles, S. 1994. Dexterity enhancement for surgery . Proc. of the First Intl. Symp. on Medical Robot. and Comp.Assisted Surgery, vol. 2, pp. 145\u2013160 ."},{"key":"atypb5","unstructured":"Cho, Y., Kotoku, T., and Tanie, K. 1995 (Pittsburgh, PA). Discrete-event-planning and control of telerobotic part mating process with communication delay in geometric uncertainty . Proc. of the IEEE Conf. on Intell. Robot. and Sys. Washington, DC: IEEE Press."},{"key":"atypb6","unstructured":"Dinsmoor, C., and Hagermann, P. 1993 (Detroit, MI). Fanuc robotics system r-j controller . Proc. of the Intl. Robots and Vision Automat. Conf."},{"key":"atypb7","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1017\/S0263574700018981"},{"key":"atypb8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Funda, J., et al. 1993 (Boston, MA). Optimal motion control for teleoperated surgical robots . SPIE Intl. Symp. on Optical Tools for Manuf. and Advanced Automat. Bellingham, WA: SPIE.","DOI":"10.1117\/12.164902"},{"key":"atypb9","unstructured":"Funda, J., et al. 1994. Image-guided command and control of a surgical robot . Proc. Med. Meets Virtual Reality II. San Diego, CA."},{"key":"atypb10","unstructured":"Funda, J., et al. 1994. An experimental user interface for an interactive surgical robot . 1st Intl. Symp. on Medical Robot. and Comp.Assisted Surgery. Pittsburgh, PA."},{"key":"atypb11","unstructured":"Funda, J., et al. 1994 (Boston, October). Comparison of two manipulator designs for laparoscopic surgery . SPIE Intl. Symp. on Optical Tools for Manuf. and Advanced Automat. Bellingham, WA: SPIE."},{"key":"atypb12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Goradia, T. M., Taylor, R. H., and Auer, L. M. 1997. Robot-assisted minimally invasive neurosurgical procedures: First experimental experience. Proc. of the First Joint Conf. of CVRMed and MRCAS. Grenoble, France: Springer .","DOI":"10.1007\/BFb0029252"},{"key":"atypb13","unstructured":"Green, P., et al. 1992. Telepresence: Advanced teleoperator technology for minimally invasive surgery (abstract) . Surgical Endoscopy 6(91)."},{"key":"atypb14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Guerrouad, A., and Vidal, P. 1989. SMOS: Stereotaxical microtelemanipulator for ocular surgery. Proc. of the Annual Intl. Conf. of the IEEE Eng. in Med. and Biol. Soc. Los Alamitos, CA: IEEE , vol. 11, pp. 879\u2013880.","DOI":"10.1109\/IEMBS.1989.96028"},{"key":"atypb15","unstructured":"Guo, C., Tarn, T. J., and Bejczy, A. 1995 (Nagoya, Japan). Fusion of human and machine intelligence for telerobotic systems . Proc. of the IEEE Conf. on Robot. and Automat. Washington, DC: IEEE."},{"key":"atypb16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Harris, S. J., et al. 1997. Experiences with robotic systems for knee surgery. Proc. of the First Joint Conf. of CVRMed and MRCAS. Grenoble, France: Springer .","DOI":"10.1007\/BFb0029301"},{"key":"atypb17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ho, S. C., Hibberd, R. D., and Davies, B. L. 1995. Robot-assisted knee surgery. IEEE Eng. Med. Biol. Mag. (special issue on robotics in surgery): 292\u2013300.","DOI":"10.1109\/51.391774"},{"key":"atypb18","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1001\/archopht.1997.01100150373010"},{"key":"atypb19","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/0010-4825(94)00042-O"},{"key":"atypb20","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/BF01880668"},{"key":"atypb21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Jensen, P. S., and J. de Juan, E. 1999 (in review). In-vivo microscopy using gradient index of refraction (GRIN) lens endoscopy.","DOI":"10.1117\/12.350574"},{"key":"atypb22","unstructured":"Kazerooni, H. 1989a. Human\/robot interaction via the transfer of power and information signals\u2014part I: Dynamics and control analysis. Proc. of the IEEE Conf. on Robot. and Automat. Los Alamitos, CA: IEEE ."},{"key":"atypb23","unstructured":"Kazerooni, H. 1989b. Human\/robot interaction via the transfer of power and information signals\u2014part II: Dynamics and control analysis. Proc. of the IEEE Conf. on Robot. and Automat. Los Alamitos, CA: IEEE ."},{"key":"atypb24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kazerooni, H., and Jenhwa, G. 1993. Human extenders . Trans. ASME: J. Dyn. Sys. Meas. Control 115(2B): 218\u2013290 .","DOI":"10.1115\/1.2899068"},{"key":"atypb25","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1162\/pres.1995.4.4.387"},{"key":"atypb26","unstructured":"Krotkov, E., and Simmons, R. 1992 (Nice, France). Performance of a six-legged planetary rover: Power, positioning, and autonomous walking . Proc. of the IEEE Intl. Conf. on Robot. and Automat. Washington, DC: IEEE."},{"key":"atypb27","unstructured":"Kumar, R., et al. 1997 (Tokyo, Japan). Robot-assisted microneurosurgical procedures, comparative dexterity experiments . Proc. of the Society for Minimally Invasive Therapy, 9th Annual Meeting, abstract book vol. 6, suppl. 1."},{"key":"atypb28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kumar, R., et al. 1999. Performance of robotic augmentation in microsurgery-scale motions . 2nd Intl. Symp. on Medical Image Computing and Comp.Assisted Surgery. Cambridge, UK.","DOI":"10.1007\/10704282_120"},{"key":"atypb29","unstructured":"Kumar, R., Jensen, P., and Taylor, R. H. 1999. Experiments with a steady hand robot in constrained compliant motion and path following . 8th IEEE International Workshop on Robot and Human Interaction (RO-MAN). Pisa, Italy."},{"key":"atypb30","unstructured":"Mindell, D. A., et al. 1993. JasonTalk: A standard ROV vehicle control system. Proc. of IEEE\/MTS OCEANS\u201993. Los Alamitos, CA: IEEE ."},{"key":"atypb31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Misuishi, M., et al. 1997. Dexterity enhancement for a tele-micro-surgery system with multiple macro-micro colocated operation point manipulators and understanding of the operator\u2019s intention. Proc. of the First Joint Conf. on Comp. Vision, Virtual Reality, and Robot. in Med. and Medical Robot. and Comp.Assisted Surgery. Grenoble, France: Springer .","DOI":"10.1007\/BFb0029309"},{"key":"atypb32","unstructured":"Mittelstadt, B. D., et al. 1994. The evolution of a surgical robot from prototype to human clinical trial . Proc. of the Intl. Symp. on Medical Robot. and Comp.Assisted Surgery. Pittsburgh, PA."},{"key":"atypb33","unstructured":"Morikawa, H., and Takanashi, N. 1996 (Minneapolis, MN). Ground experiment system for space robots based on predictive bilateral control . Proc. of the IEEE Conf. on Robot. and Automat. Washington, DC: IEEE."},{"key":"atypb34","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/0014-4835(91)90024-9"},{"key":"atypb35","unstructured":"Riviere, C. N., and Khosla, P. K. 1997 (Albuquerque, NM). Augmenting the human-machine interface: Improving manual accuracy . Proc. of the IEEE Conf. on Robot. and Automat. Washington, DC: IEEE."},{"key":"atypb36","unstructured":"Riviere, C. N., and Khosla, P. K. 1999a. Intraoperative tremor monitoring for vitreoretinal microsurgery . Proc. of the 2nd Intl. Conf. on Medical Image Computing and Comp.Assisted Interventions (MICCAI 99). Cambridge, UK."},{"key":"atypb37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Riviere, C. N., and Khosla, P. K. 1999b. Microscale measurement of surgical instrument motion . Proc. of the 2nd Intl. Conf. on Medical Image Computing and Comp.Assisted Interventions (MICCAI 99). Cambridge, UK.","DOI":"10.1007\/10704282_117"},{"key":"atypb38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Riviere, C. N., and Thakor, N. V. 1996. Modeling and canceling tremor in human-machine interfaces . IEEE Eng. Med. Biol. Mag. (May\/June): 29\u201336 .","DOI":"10.1109\/51.499755"},{"key":"atypb39","unstructured":"Sakakibara, S. 1996 (Taipei, Taiwan). A two-armed intelligent robot assembles mini robots automatically . Proc. of the 1996 IEEE IECON 22nd Intl. Conf. on Industrial Electronics, Control and Instrumentation. Washington, DC: IEEE."},{"key":"atypb40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Salcudean, S. E., Ku, S., and Bell, G. 1997. Performance measurement in scaled teleoperation for microsurgery. Proc. of the First Joint Conf. on Comp. Vision, Virtual Reality, and Robot. in Med. and Medical Robot. and Comp.Assisted Surgery. Grenoble, France: Springer .","DOI":"10.1007\/BFb0029304"},{"key":"atypb41","unstructured":"Satava, R. 1992. Robotics, telepresence, and virtual reality: A critical analysis for the future of surgery . Minimally Invasive Therapy 1: 357\u2013363 ."},{"key":"atypb42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Schenker, P. S., Das, H. O., and Timothy, R. 1995 (Boston, MA). Development of a new high-dexterity manipulator for robot-assisted microsurgery . Proc. of SPIE\u2014Intl. Soc. for Optical Eng.: Telemanipulator and Telepresence Tech. Bellingham, WA: SPIE.","DOI":"10.1117\/12.197310"},{"key":"atypb43","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/0967-0661(94)00078-U"},{"key":"atypb44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Stoianovici, D., et al. 1998. A modular surgical robotic system for image-guided percutaneous procedures. Intl. Conf. on Medical Image Computing and Comp.\u2013Assisted Intervention. New York\/Berlin: Springer .","DOI":"10.1007\/BFb0056225"},{"key":"atypb45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Stoianovici, D., etal. 1997. An efficient needle-injection technique and radiological guidance method for percutaneous procedures. Proc. of the First Joint Conf. of CVRMed II and MRCAS III. Grenoble, France: Springer .","DOI":"10.1007\/BFb0029248"},{"key":"atypb46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Stoianovici, D., et al. 1998. A modular surgical robotic system for image-guided percutaneous procedures. Medical Image Computing and Comp.Assisted Interventions (MICCAI-98). 1998. Cambridge, MA: Springer .","DOI":"10.1007\/BFb0056225"},{"key":"atypb47","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/rob.4620050505"},{"key":"atypb48","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/70.294202"},{"key":"atypb49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Taylor, R. H., et al. 1995. A telerobotic assistant for laparo-scopic surgery. IEEE Eng. Med. Biol. Mag. (special issue on robotics in surgery): 279\u2013291.","DOI":"10.1109\/51.391776"},{"key":"atypb50","unstructured":"Taylor, R. H., et al. 1996. A telerobotic assistant for laparo-scopic surgery. In Computer-Integrated Surgery, ed. R. H. Taylor et al. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press , pp. 581\u2013592."},{"key":"atypb51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Troccaz, J., Peshkin, M., and Davies, B. L. 1997. The use of localizers, robots, and synergistic devices in CAS. Proc. of the First Joint Conf. of CVRMed and MRCAS. Grenoble, France: Springer .","DOI":"10.1007\/BFb0029298"},{"key":"atypb52","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/70.210795"},{"key":"atypb53","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/70.554351"},{"key":"atypb54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Xu, Y., and Kanade, T. 1993. Space Robotics: Dynamics and Control. Boston, MA: Kluwer .","DOI":"10.1007\/978-1-4615-3588-1"},{"key":"atypb55","unstructured":"Yamamoto, Y., Eda, H., and Yun, X. 1996 (Minneapolis, MN). Coordinated task execution of a human and a mobile manipulator . Proc. of the IEEE Conf. on Robot. and Automat. Washington, DC: IEEE."},{"key":"atypb56","unstructured":"Yoerger, D. R., Bradley, A. M., and Walden, B. B. 1992. Autonomous benthic explorer deep ocean scientific auv for seafloor exploration: Untethered on station one year without support ship. Sea Tech. 50\u201354."}],"container-title":["The International Journal of Robotics Research"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/journals.sagepub.com\/doi\/pdf\/10.1177\/02783649922067807","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/journals.sagepub.com\/doi\/pdf\/10.1177\/02783649922067807","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,3,3]],"date-time":"2025-03-03T03:39:46Z","timestamp":1740973186000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/journals.sagepub.com\/doi\/10.1177\/02783649922067807"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[1999,12]]},"references-count":56,"journal-issue":{"issue":"12","published-print":{"date-parts":[[1999,12]]}},"alternative-id":["10.1177\/02783649922067807"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1177\/02783649922067807","relation":{},"ISSN":["0278-3649","1741-3176"],"issn-type":[{"value":"0278-3649","type":"print"},{"value":"1741-3176","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[1999,12]]}}}