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In areas with IRR the kidney surface may subsequently be depressed and the papillae retracted (reflux nephropathy (RN)). VUR may lead to hypertension and\/or end-stage renal failure. Most commonly, VUR is discovered during evaluation for urinary tract infection, but it may also be present in patients with hypertension, toxemia of pregnancy, chronic renal failure and proteinuria, and it may be found in siblings of patients with VUR. For the time being VUR is demonstrated at radiographic MCU, whereas RN is diagnosed by demonstration of focal scars and of abnormal parenchymal thickness at urography. In children with VUR and no abnormalities of calyces or parenchymal defects standardized measurement of the parenchymal thickness at three sites may identify kidneys which are likely to develop focal scars. Quantitation of focal scarring should be performed in connection with a measure of the overall kidney size. The occurrence of IRR is dependent of the papillary morphology, intrapelvic pressure and urine flow. There may be an important relationship between renal ischemia and IRR in producing a \u2018vicious circle of deleterious effects\u2019 which, combined with parenchymal extravasation, may lead to RN. Treatment of VUR includes medical and surgical management. Since renal scarring may occur in infancy, prevention should focus on infants and young children. Infants and young children with severe VUR may have normal urograms. Therefore a MCU should also be performed, preferably with the recommended standardized technique.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1177\/028418518502600102","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2015,6,11]],"date-time":"2015-06-11T06:25:56Z","timestamp":1434003956000},"page":"3-13","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":11,"title":["Vesicoureteral Reflux and Reflux Nephropathy"],"prefix":"10.1177","volume":"26","author":[{"given":"H. 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