{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,28]],"date-time":"2026-09-28T01:12:55Z","timestamp":1790557975066,"version":"4.1.0"},"reference-count":82,"publisher":"SAGE Publications","issue":"1","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,1]],"date-time":"2026-01-01T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1767225600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-nc\/4.0\/"},{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,1]],"date-time":"2026-01-01T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1767225600000},"content-version":"tdm","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/journals.sagepub.com\/page\/policies\/text-and-data-mining-license"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["journals.sagepub.com"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["J Int Med Res"],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2026,1]]},"abstract":"<jats:p>The use of artificial intelligence is changing the landscape of breast cancer surgery through enhanced precision, accuracy, and personalized treatment strategies. This narrative review assessed artificial intelligence applications across the surgical stages of care in breast cancer surgery, including preoperative planning, intraoperative assistance, and postoperative care. A structured literature search of PubMed, Scopus, and Web of Science over the past 15 years was conducted to identify studies on artificial intelligence applications across all stages of breast cancer surgery. In the preoperative phase, artificial intelligence contributes to tumor detection, segmentation, and surgical margin assessment through advanced imaging and predictive modeling. During surgery, real-time image-guided systems and robotic platforms powered by machine learning enable greater accuracy and intraoperative decision support. Postoperatively, artificial intelligence\u2013driven tools aid in complication prediction, recurrence monitoring, and follow-up personalization, thereby improving patient outcomes and reducing variability in care. Integration of multimodal artificial intelligence approaches from imaging, robotics, and predictive analytics across the surgical continuum can help highlight translational gaps and evaluate clinical readiness, providing insights that have not been emphasized in previous reviews. Despite these advancements, many artificial intelligence applications remain in early research stages or have limited clinical use, facing challenges in data standardization, model interpretability, ethics, and integration into practice. Clinical impact depends on infrastructure, surgeon expertise, and regulations. Nevertheless, interdisciplinary collaboration allows artificial intelligence to enhance accuracy, reduce complications, and improve patient-centered care in breast cancer surgery.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1177\/03000605251412124","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,22]],"date-time":"2026-01-22T04:16:33Z","timestamp":1769055393000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1177\/sage-journals-update-policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":4,"title":["Artificial intelligence in breast surgery: Current applications, challenges, and future perspectives"],"prefix":"10.1177","volume":"54","author":[{"given":"Mahtab","family":"Khajeh","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Sabzevar University of Medical Sciences"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Pezhman","family":"Farshidmehr","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Medicine, Sina Hospital, Tehran University of Medical Sciences"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Ehsan","family":"Rahimpour","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Medicine, Sina Hospital, Tehran University of Medical Sciences"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Parastoo","family":"Amiri","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Sabzevar University of Medical Sciences"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0004-3013-6686","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Mohammad Amin","family":"Shahram","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Sabzevar University of Medical Sciences"},{"name":"Department of Medical Physics and Radiological Sciences, Sabzevar University of Medical Sciences, Iran"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"179","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,21]]},"reference":[{"key":"e_1_3_8_2_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1097\/01.JAA.0000580524.95733.3d"},{"key":"e_1_3_8_3_2","unstructured":"Czajka ML Pfeifer C. Breast cancer surgery. In: StatPearls. Treasure Island (FL): StatPearls Publishing 2020"},{"key":"e_1_3_8_4_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1186\/1477-7819-8-5"},{"key":"e_1_3_8_5_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1093\/bjs\/znac224"},{"key":"e_1_3_8_6_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3390\/medicina61030440"},{"key":"e_1_3_8_7_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1039\/B614388A"},{"key":"e_1_3_8_8_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.21037\/mhealth.2018.04.02"},{"key":"e_1_3_8_9_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1200\/CCI.20.00018"},{"key":"e_1_3_8_10_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.glmedi.2024.100120"},{"key":"e_1_3_8_11_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.21037\/gs-23-414"},{"key":"e_1_3_8_12_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.breast.2025.104564"},{"key":"e_1_3_8_13_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.intonc.2025.09.001"},{"key":"e_1_3_8_14_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1186\/s41073-019-0064-8"},{"key":"e_1_3_8_15_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1097\/PRS.0000000000002088"},{"key":"e_1_3_8_16_2","unstructured":"Seidman AD. Computer-assisted decision support in medical oncology: we need it now https:\/\/ascopost.com\/issues\/april-10-2016\/computer-assisted-decision-support-in-medical-oncology-we-need-it-now\/ (2016 accessed 25 December 2025)."},{"key":"e_1_3_8_17_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.artmed.2020.101922"},{"key":"e_1_3_8_18_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1186\/s12911-020-01332-6"},{"key":"e_1_3_8_19_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.annonc.2023.11.016"},{"key":"e_1_3_8_20_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1200\/CCI.18.00159"},{"key":"e_1_3_8_21_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.surg.2020.04.049"},{"key":"e_1_3_8_22_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1093\/annonc\/mdz173"},{"key":"e_1_3_8_23_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.6004\/jnccn.2018.0043"},{"key":"e_1_3_8_24_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.annonc.2019.10.012"},{"key":"e_1_3_8_25_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ejrad.2022.110247"},{"key":"e_1_3_8_26_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.currproblcancer.2022.100883"},{"key":"e_1_3_8_27_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s00330-021-08519-z"},{"key":"e_1_3_8_28_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ejca.2020.11.006"},{"key":"e_1_3_8_29_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1200\/JCO.21.02439"},{"key":"e_1_3_8_30_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0289365"},{"key":"e_1_3_8_31_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1200\/CCI.20.00088"},{"key":"e_1_3_8_32_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s11517-023-02922-y"},{"key":"e_1_3_8_33_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bjps.2022.10.021"},{"key":"e_1_3_8_34_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.breast.2020.01.001"},{"key":"e_1_3_8_35_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1093\/asjof\/ojab052"},{"key":"e_1_3_8_36_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.21037\/gs-23-265"},{"key":"e_1_3_8_37_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3390\/bios6040057"},{"key":"e_1_3_8_38_2","first-page":"36A\u201336A","volume":"15","author":"Haka AS","year":"2002","unstructured":"Haka AS, Shafer-Peltier KE, Fitzmaurice M, et\u00a0al. Distinguishing type II microcalcifications in benign and malignant breast lesions using Raman spectroscopy. Mod Pathol 2002; 15: 36A\u201336A.","journal-title":"Distinguishing type II microcalcifications in benign and malignant breast lesions using Raman spectroscopy"},{"key":"e_1_3_8_39_2","first-page":"5375","article-title":"Identifying microcalcifications in benign and malignant breast lesions by probing differences in their chemical composition using Raman spectroscopy","volume":"62","author":"Haka AS","year":"2002","unstructured":"Haka AS, Shafer-Peltier KE, Fitzmaurice M, et\u00a0al. Identifying microcalcifications in benign and malignant breast lesions by probing differences in their chemical composition using Raman spectroscopy. Cancer Res 2002; 62: 5375\u20135380.","journal-title":"Cancer Res"},{"key":"e_1_3_8_40_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/srep09907"},{"key":"e_1_3_8_41_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-021-85758-6"},{"key":"e_1_3_8_42_2","first-page":"229255032412923","article-title":"Integrating AI into breast reconstruction surgery: exploring opportunities, applications, and challenges","author":"Gorgy A","year":"2024","unstructured":"Gorgy A, Xu HH, Hawary HE, et\u00a0al. Integrating AI into breast reconstruction surgery: exploring opportunities, applications, and challenges. Plast Surg (Oakv) 2024; 22925503241292349.","journal-title":"Plast Surg (Oakv)"},{"key":"e_1_3_8_43_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1097\/MOU.0000000000000816"},{"key":"e_1_3_8_44_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1097\/PRS.0000000000010158"},{"key":"e_1_3_8_45_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/ans.18107"},{"key":"e_1_3_8_46_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1097\/GOX.0000000000002619"},{"key":"e_1_3_8_47_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s11701-024-01937-3"},{"key":"e_1_3_8_48_2","first-page":"e42370","article-title":"Robotic surgery: a comprehensive review of the literature and current trends","volume":"15","author":"Rivero-Moreno Y","year":"2023","unstructured":"Rivero-Moreno Y, Echevarria S, Vidal-Valderrama C, et\u00a0al. Robotic surgery: a comprehensive review of the literature and current trends. Cureus 2023; 15: e42370.","journal-title":"Cureus"},{"key":"e_1_3_8_49_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Taylor RH Mittelstadt BD Paul HA et\u00a0al. An image-directed robotic system for precise orthopaedic surgery. IEEE Transactions on Robotics and Automation 1990; 10: 261\u2013275.","DOI":"10.1109\/70.294202"},{"key":"e_1_3_8_50_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1097\/SLA.0000000000005700"},{"key":"e_1_3_8_51_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.breast.2016.06.023"},{"key":"e_1_3_8_52_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.30699\/ijp.2020.116238.2261"},{"key":"e_1_3_8_53_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s00404-023-07130-5"},{"key":"e_1_3_8_54_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/S0960-9776(98)90110-2"},{"key":"e_1_3_8_55_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1177\/15347354231168624"},{"key":"e_1_3_8_56_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rechem.2023.101292"},{"key":"e_1_3_8_57_2","first-page":"e1376","article-title":"Outcome of hypofractionated breast irradiation and intraoperative electron boost in early breast cancer: a randomized non\u2010inferiority clinical trial","volume":"4","author":"Fadavi P","year":"2021","unstructured":"Fadavi P, Nafissi N, Mahdavi SR, et\u00a0al. Outcome of hypofractionated breast irradiation and intraoperative electron boost in early breast cancer: a randomized non\u2010inferiority clinical trial. Cancer Rep (Hoboken) 2021; 4: e1376.","journal-title":"Cancer Rep (Hoboken)"},{"key":"e_1_3_8_58_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/tbj.13804"},{"key":"e_1_3_8_59_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijmedinf.2020.104170"},{"key":"e_1_3_8_60_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0236833"},{"key":"e_1_3_8_61_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-021-85155-z"},{"key":"e_1_3_8_62_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1097\/PRS.0000000000010603"},{"key":"e_1_3_8_63_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s00520-014-2338-5"},{"key":"e_1_3_8_64_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s40944-020-00389-5"},{"key":"e_1_3_8_65_2","first-page":"315","article-title":"Neuropathic pain as a process: reversal of chronification in an animal model","volume":"4","author":"Dableh LJ","year":"2011","unstructured":"Dableh LJ, Yashpal K, Henry JL. Neuropathic pain as a process: reversal of chronification in an animal model. J Pain Res 2011; 4: 315\u2013323.","journal-title":"J Pain Res"},{"key":"e_1_3_8_66_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1200\/JCO.2016.68.5206"},{"key":"e_1_3_8_67_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1001\/jamanetworkopen.2024.24299"},{"key":"e_1_3_8_68_2","unstructured":"Ren Y Tripathi C Guan Z et\u00a0al. Transparent AI: developing an explainable interface for predicting postoperative complications. arXiv Epub ahead of print 18 April 2024. DOI: 10.48550\/arXiv.2404.16064."},{"key":"e_1_3_8_69_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1001\/jamanetworkopen.2024.24297"},{"key":"e_1_3_8_70_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3390\/jcm12155143"},{"key":"e_1_3_8_71_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1186\/s40644-025-00863-3"},{"key":"e_1_3_8_72_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/JBHI.2024.3418341"},{"key":"e_1_3_8_73_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1186\/s40537-025-01114-9"},{"key":"e_1_3_8_74_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.compbiomed.2024.109391"},{"key":"e_1_3_8_75_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1053\/j.semnuclmed.2025.01.008"},{"key":"e_1_3_8_76_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.2196\/62941"},{"key":"e_1_3_8_77_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cmpb.2021.106288"},{"key":"e_1_3_8_78_2","first-page":"22","article-title":"Artificial intelligence in surgery: the future is now","volume":"65","author":"Guni A","year":"2024","unstructured":"Guni A, Varma P, Zhang J, et\u00a0al. Artificial intelligence in surgery: the future is now. Eur Surg Res 2024; 65: 22\u201339.","journal-title":"Eur Surg Res"},{"key":"e_1_3_8_79_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/s41591-018-0316-z"},{"key":"e_1_3_8_80_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/TNNLS.2020.3027314"},{"key":"e_1_3_8_81_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-025-95858-2"},{"key":"e_1_3_8_82_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.12771\/emj.2024.e49"},{"key":"e_1_3_8_83_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1200\/EDBK-25-100048"}],"container-title":["Journal of International Medical Research"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/journals.sagepub.com\/doi\/pdf\/10.1177\/03000605251412124","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/journals.sagepub.com\/doi\/full-xml\/10.1177\/03000605251412124","content-type":"application\/xml","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/journals.sagepub.com\/doi\/pdf\/10.1177\/03000605251412124","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,29]],"date-time":"2026-04-29T10:48:29Z","timestamp":1777459709000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/journals.sagepub.com\/doi\/10.1177\/03000605251412124"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,1]]},"references-count":82,"journal-issue":{"issue":"1","published-print":{"date-parts":[[2026,1]]}},"alternative-id":["10.1177\/03000605251412124"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1177\/03000605251412124","relation":{},"ISSN":["0300-0605","1473-2300"],"issn-type":[{"value":"0300-0605","type":"print"},{"value":"1473-2300","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,1]]},"article-number":"03000605251412124"}}