{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,30]],"date-time":"2026-09-30T09:54:06Z","timestamp":1790762046028,"version":"4.1.0"},"reference-count":94,"publisher":"SAGE Publications","issue":"1","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2016,7,1]],"date-time":"2016-07-01T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1467331200000},"content-version":"tdm","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/journals.sagepub.com\/page\/policies\/text-and-data-mining-license"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["journals.sagepub.com"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["Race &amp; Class"],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2016,7]]},"abstract":"<jats:p>This article tells the hitherto untold story of how different Pakistani organisations mobilised in response to racist violence and harassment in the east London Borough of Tower Hamlets (1968\u20131970). In telling this story, the authors analyse the problematic nature of official and public understandings of, and responses to, racist violence, and how it distorted the lives of racialised minorities. Drawing on original archival research carried out in 2014, this piece identifies the emergence of two distinct political repertoires from within the Pakistani community: the integrationist approach and the autonomous approach. The integrationist approach involving the Pakistani Welfare Association (PWA) and the National Federation of Pakistani Associations (NFPA) tried to address the problem through existing local state \u2018race relations\u2019 apparatuses and mainstream political channels, while at the same time re-establishing consent for the police as the agents of law and order. In contrast, a network of Black Power groups, anti-imperialists and socialists led by the Pakistani Progressive Party (PPP) and the Pakistani Workers\u2019 Union (PWU) challenged both the local political leadership and the authority of the police in Tower Hamlets, while also undermining the stereotype of Asian people as \u2018weak\u2019 and \u2018passive\u2019. In recovering this lost episode of resistance to \u2018Paki-bashing\u2019, unleashed in the aftermath of Enoch Powell\u2019s inflammatory speeches, this essay makes a contribution to the history of autonomous anti-racist collective action undertaken by racialised minorities in Britain.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1177\/0306396816642997","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2016,6,24]],"date-time":"2016-06-24T10:07:25Z","timestamp":1466762845000},"page":"34-54","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1177\/sage-journals-update-policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":21,"title":["Striking back against racist violence in the East End of London, 1968\u20131970"],"prefix":"10.1177","volume":"58","author":[{"given":"Stephen","family":"Ashe","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Satnam","family":"Virdee","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Laurence","family":"Brown","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"179","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2016,7,1]]},"reference":[{"key":"bibr1-0306396816642997","unstructured":"Hesse B. Beneath the Surface: racial harassment (Aldershot: Avebury, 1992), p. xxv. See also Fryer P., Staying Power: the history of black people in Britain (London: Pluto Press, 1984)."},{"key":"bibr2-0306396816642997","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/978-1-137-43947-5"},{"key":"bibr3-0306396816642997","volume-title":"Black Star: Britain\u2019s Asian youth movements","author":"Ramamurthy A.","year":"2013"},{"key":"bibr4-0306396816642997","unstructured":"Sivanandan A., Catching History on the Wing: race, culture and globalisation (London: Pluto Press, 2008), p. 120; Ramamurthy,\n                      Black Star\n                      , p. 12; Hiro D., Black British: White British (London: Eyre & Spottiswoode, 1971), p. 191."},{"key":"bibr5-0306396816642997","volume-title":"Brick Lane, 1978: the events and their significance","author":"Blood on the Streets: a report by Bethnal Green and Stepney Trades Council on racial attacks in East London","year":"1978"},{"key":"bibr6-0306396816642997","volume-title":"Ethnic Minorities in Britain: diversity and disadvantage. Series: PSI report (843)","author":"Virdee S.","year":"1997"},{"key":"bibr7-0306396816642997","unstructured":"Gordon P., Racial Violence and Harassment (London: Runnymede Trust, 1990); Police Against Black People, pp. 18\u201326."},{"key":"bibr8-0306396816642997","volume-title":"Racial Violence and Harassment. Series: PSI research report (729)","author":"Virdee S.","year":"1995"},{"key":"bibr9-0306396816642997","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.socscimed.2012.03.046"},{"key":"bibr10-0306396816642997","volume-title":"Ethnic Minorities in Britain","author":"Hesse"},{"key":"bibr11-0306396816642997","first-page":"xv","author":"Hesse","journal-title":"Beneath the Surface"},{"key":"bibr12-0306396816642997","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/978-1-349-15881-2"},{"key":"bibr13-0306396816642997","volume-title":"There Ain\u2019t No Black in the Union Jack: the cultural politics of race and nation","author":"Gilroy P.","year":"1987"},{"key":"bibr14-0306396816642997","first-page":"xv","author":"Hesse","journal-title":"Beneath the Surface"},{"key":"bibr15-0306396816642997","first-page":"xxv","author":"Hesse","journal-title":"Beneath the Surface"},{"key":"bibr16-0306396816642997","volume-title":"The Observer","author":"Skinhead terror in Bethnal Green","year":"1970"},{"key":"bibr17-0306396816642997","volume-title":"The Invisible Empire: white discourse, tolerance and belonging","author":"Weymess G.","year":"2009"},{"key":"bibr18-0306396816642997","author":"Virdee","journal-title":"Racism, Class and the Racialized Outsider"},{"key":"bibr19-0306396816642997","volume-title":"Racial Violence in Britain, 1840\u20131950","author":"Panayi P.","year":"1993"},{"key":"bibr20-0306396816642997","volume-title":"The Scotsman","author":"Race war threat in London\u2019s East End","year":"1970"},{"key":"bibr21-0306396816642997","first-page":"337","author":"L. London","year":"1973","journal-title":"Race Today"},{"key":"bibr22-0306396816642997","volume-title":"Sunday Times","author":"No wives, bad housing at root of East End Pakistani troubles","year":"1970"},{"key":"bibr23-0306396816642997","volume-title":"A Community Approach to Youth Work in East London","author":"Cox D.","year":"1970"},{"key":"bibr24-0306396816642997","unstructured":"In late 2014, we carried out original archival research on events leading up to and following Tosir Ali\u2019s murder, focusing primarily on the \u2018Black History Collection\u2019 held at the Institute of Race Relations, the \u2018Peter Shore Collection\u2019 at the London School of Economics and the Tower Hamlets\u2019 Local History Library and Archives. This research enabled us to bring together a variety of primary and secondary sources ranging from national newspaper cuttings, press releases, political circulars, leaflets and memoranda, local authority and CRC reports, personal communications, letters and personal notes, and the minutes of private meetings."},{"key":"bibr25-0306396816642997","first-page":"337","author":"L. London","year":"1973","journal-title":"Race Today"},{"key":"bibr26-0306396816642997","first-page":"327","volume-title":"Five Views of Multi-Cultural Britain","author":"Hall S.","year":"1978"},{"key":"bibr27-0306396816642997","first-page":"114","author":"Virdee","journal-title":"Racism, Class and the Racialized Outsider"},{"key":"bibr28-0306396816642997","unstructured":"See Fekete Liz, \u2018Dockers Against Racism: an interview with Micky Fenn\u2019, in this issue."},{"key":"bibr29-0306396816642997","first-page":"105","author":"Sivanandan A.","journal-title":"Catching History on the Wing"},{"key":"bibr30-0306396816642997","volume-title":"Communities of Resistance: writings on black struggles for socialism","author":"Sivanandan A.","year":"1990"},{"key":"bibr31-0306396816642997","first-page":"115","author":"Virdee","journal-title":"Racism, Class and the Racialized Outsider"},{"key":"bibr32-0306396816642997","first-page":"13","author":"Glean M.","year":"1973","journal-title":"Race Today"},{"key":"bibr33-0306396816642997","first-page":"105","author":"Sivanandan","journal-title":"Catching History on the Wing"},{"key":"bibr34-0306396816642997","first-page":"108","author":"Sivanandan","journal-title":"Catching History on the Wing"},{"key":"bibr35-0306396816642997","first-page":"120","author":"Sivanandan","journal-title":"Catching History on the Wing"},{"key":"bibr36-0306396816642997","unstructured":"Sivanandan, A Different Hunger: writings on Black resistance (London: Pluto, 1982), p. 25."},{"key":"bibr37-0306396816642997","unstructured":"\u2018Report of the General Secretary\u2019, presented by Joshi J. at The National Conference of the Indian Workers Association, Great Britain, 7\u20138 November 1970 at Nottingham (Produced by the Central Executive Committee of the Indian Workers Association, Great Britain), pp. 14\u201315 \u2013 File MS 2141-A-1-4, Avtar Jouhl and the Indian Workers Association Collection, Birmingham Library Archives and Heritage Service."},{"key":"bibr38-0306396816642997","volume-title":"The Changing Pattern of Black Politics in Britain","author":"Shukra K.","year":"1998"},{"key":"bibr39-0306396816642997","unstructured":"In light of this, we use the term Pakistani to reflect the identity around which different sections of the Pakistani population were mobilising both in Tower Hamlets and nationally at this time."},{"key":"bibr40-0306396816642997","unstructured":"\u2018Memorandum Concerning Attacks on Pakistani People in London\u2019 (Undated) \u2013 File SHORE\/8\/16, London School of Economics."},{"key":"bibr41-0306396816642997","unstructured":"\u2018Memorandum Concerning Attacks on Pakistani People in London\u2019 (Undated)."},{"key":"bibr42-0306396816642997","volume-title":"Encyclopedia of British and Irish Political Organizations: parties, groups and movements of the twentieth century","author":"Barberis P.","year":"2000"},{"key":"bibr43-0306396816642997","first-page":"174","volume-title":"The Empire Strikes Back: race and racism in 70s Britain","author":"Gilroy P.","year":"1982"},{"key":"bibr44-0306396816642997","first-page":"327","author":"Hall","journal-title":"Policing the Crisis"},{"key":"bibr45-0306396816642997","author":"Ramamurthy","journal-title":"Black Star"},{"key":"bibr46-0306396816642997","unstructured":"Joseph Hunte was also the author of\n                      Nigger Hunting in England?\n                      (London: West Indian Standing Conference, 1966). Through the media coverage of events in Tower Hamlets throughout 1970, Hunte himself was also the victim of racist stereotyping centring around the purported size and physical prowess of black men. For example, Hunte was described as a \u2018big flamboyant yet tough West Indian\u2019 (\u2018Race war threat in London\u2019s East End\u2019,\n                      The Scotsman\n                      ), while also being said to have \u2018a build like Sonny Liston\u2019 (\u2018Skinhead terror in Bethnal Green\u2019,\n                      The Observer\n                      )."},{"key":"bibr47-0306396816642997","author":"Race war threat in London\u2019s East End","journal-title":"The Scotsman"},{"key":"bibr48-0306396816642997","unstructured":"C.C.T.H. News\n                      (London, Council of Citizens of Tower Hamlets), March 1970, p. 4 \u2013 File SHORE\/8\/16, London School of Economics."},{"key":"bibr49-0306396816642997","unstructured":"C.C.T.H. News\n                      , March 1970, pp. 4\u20135."},{"key":"bibr50-0306396816642997","unstructured":"C.C.T.H. News\n                      , March 1970, pp. 4\u20135."},{"key":"bibr51-0306396816642997","author":"Race war threat in London\u2019s East End","journal-title":"The Scotsman"},{"key":"bibr52-0306396816642997","author":"Race war threat in London\u2019s East End","journal-title":"The Scotsman"},{"key":"bibr53-0306396816642997","author":"Skinhead terror in Bethnal Green","journal-title":"The Observer"},{"key":"bibr54-0306396816642997","volume-title":"The Times","author":"Envoy visits race attack district","year":"1970"},{"key":"bibr55-0306396816642997","unstructured":"\u2018From the RT Hon Peter Shore MP: Assaults on Pakistanis\u2019, 8 April 1970 \u2013 File SHORE\/8\/16, London School of Economics."},{"key":"bibr56-0306396816642997","volume-title":"Daily Telegraph","author":"Callaghan gives pledge on \u201cPaki-bashing\u201d","year":"1970"},{"key":"bibr57-0306396816642997","unstructured":"\u2018The Rt. Hon. Peter Shore, MP for Stepney, issued the following statement today about assaults on Pakistanis in the East End\u2019, 15 April 1970 \u2013 File SHORE\/8\/16, London School of Economics."},{"key":"bibr58-0306396816642997","volume-title":"The Guardian","author":"Pakistanis vote for vigilante force","year":"1970"},{"key":"bibr59-0306396816642997","unstructured":"\u2018Resume of Meeting held at the House of Commons\u2019, dated 20 April 1970 \u2013 File SHORE\/8\/16, London School of Economics."},{"key":"bibr60-0306396816642997","unstructured":"\u2018Resume of Meeting held at the House of Commons\u2019."},{"key":"bibr61-0306396816642997","unstructured":"\u2018Press Release distributed on behalf of Mr Joe Hunte, Community Relations Officer of Tower Hamlets\u2019, 21 April 1970 \u2013 File SHORE\/8\/16, London School of Economics."},{"key":"bibr62-0306396816642997","volume-title":"The Guardian","author":"The bovver in Brick Lane","year":"1970"},{"key":"bibr63-0306396816642997","unstructured":"\u2018Press Release distributed on behalf of Mr Joe Hunte\u2019, 21 April 1970."},{"key":"bibr64-0306396816642997","volume-title":"Together","author":"Original emphasis"},{"key":"bibr65-0306396816642997","volume-title":"The Mirror","author":"\u201cPaki-bashers\u201d put 3 in hospital","year":"1970"},{"key":"bibr66-0306396816642997","first-page":"23","author":"Sivanandan","journal-title":"A Different Hunger"},{"key":"bibr67-0306396816642997","first-page":"32","author":"Sivanandan","journal-title":"Communities of Resistance"},{"key":"bibr68-0306396816642997","first-page":"240","author":"Hall","journal-title":"Policing the Crisis"},{"key":"bibr69-0306396816642997","volume-title":"Sunday Times","author":"Fear mobilises the Pakistanis behind the bitter barricades","year":"1970"},{"key":"bibr70-0306396816642997","unstructured":"Original emphasis. Pakistani Progressive Party Leaflet \u2013 File 01\/04\/04\/01\/04\/01\/17, Institute of Race Relations."},{"key":"bibr71-0306396816642997","unstructured":"Pakistani Progressive Party Leaflet \u2013 File 01\/04\/04\/01\/04\/01\/17, Institute of Race Relations."},{"key":"bibr72-0306396816642997","volume-title":"Sunday Telegraph","author":"Rise of race-hate thugs","year":"1970"},{"key":"bibr73-0306396816642997","volume-title":"Morning Star","author":"Growing problem of racial violence in London\u2019s East End","year":"1970"},{"key":"bibr74-0306396816642997","unstructured":"\u2018Pakistanis split by power fight\u2019 (4 May 1970) \u2013 File SHORE\/8\/16, London School of Economics."},{"key":"bibr75-0306396816642997","volume-title":"Daily Telegraph","year":"1970"},{"key":"bibr76-0306396816642997","unstructured":"Letter from Alex Hart to Peter Shore, 14 April 1970 \u2013 File SHORE\/8\/16, London School of Economics."},{"key":"bibr77-0306396816642997","volume-title":"Daily Mail","author":"Protection groups to be formed by Pakistanis","year":"1970"},{"key":"bibr78-0306396816642997","volume-title":"The Guardian","author":"Pakistanis vote for vigilante force","year":"1970"},{"key":"bibr79-0306396816642997","author":"Pakistanis vote for vigilante force","journal-title":"The Guardian"},{"key":"bibr80-0306396816642997","author":"Protection groups to be formed by Pakistanis","journal-title":"The Guardian"},{"key":"bibr81-0306396816642997","author":"Leech","year":"1978","journal-title":"Brick Lane"},{"key":"bibr82-0306396816642997","volume-title":"Daily Telegraph","author":"Pakistanis threaten action on hooliganism","year":"1970"},{"key":"bibr83-0306396816642997","author":"Irish left-wingers to join Pakistani \u201cBovver\u201d squads","journal-title":"Daily Telegraph"},{"key":"bibr84-0306396816642997","author":"Pakistanis threaten action on hooliganism","journal-title":"The Guardian"},{"key":"bibr85-0306396816642997","author":"Irish left-wingers to join Pakistani \u201cBovver\u201d squads\u201d","journal-title":"Daily Telegraph"},{"key":"bibr86-0306396816642997","volume-title":"The Times","author":"Pakistanis threaten action on hooliganism","year":"1970"},{"key":"bibr87-0306396816642997","author":"Pakistanis protest at No 10","journal-title":"The Times"},{"key":"bibr88-0306396816642997","unstructured":"\u2018Pakistanis split by power fight\u2019, 4 May 1970 \u2013 File SHORE\/8\/16, London School of Economics."},{"key":"bibr89-0306396816642997","volume-title":"Sunday Telegraph","author":"Rise of race-hate thugs","year":"1970"},{"key":"bibr90-0306396816642997","volume-title":"The Sunday Times","author":"Fear mobilises the Pakistanis behind the bitter barricades","year":"1970"},{"key":"bibr91-0306396816642997","author":"Hunte\u2019s comments were also echoed by the Bishop of Stepney, Trevor Huddleston","journal-title":"The Scotsman"},{"key":"bibr92-0306396816642997","unstructured":"\u2018Pakistanis split by power fight\u2019."},{"key":"bibr93-0306396816642997","unstructured":"Together\n                      (Periodical of the League of Overseas Pakistanis dedicated to the struggle for Basic Human Rights, Racial Equality and Social justice)."},{"key":"bibr94-0306396816642997","volume-title":"Daily Mail","author":"Together","year":"1970"}],"container-title":["Race &amp; Class"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/journals.sagepub.com\/doi\/pdf\/10.1177\/0306396816642997","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/journals.sagepub.com\/doi\/full-xml\/10.1177\/0306396816642997","content-type":"application\/xml","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/journals.sagepub.com\/doi\/pdf\/10.1177\/0306396816642997","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,1]],"date-time":"2026-05-01T18:03:37Z","timestamp":1777658617000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/journals.sagepub.com\/doi\/10.1177\/0306396816642997"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2016,7]]},"references-count":94,"journal-issue":{"issue":"1","published-print":{"date-parts":[[2016,7]]}},"alternative-id":["10.1177\/0306396816642997"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1177\/0306396816642997","relation":{},"ISSN":["0306-3968","1741-3125"],"issn-type":[{"value":"0306-3968","type":"print"},{"value":"1741-3125","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2016,7]]}}}