{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,15]],"date-time":"2026-10-15T11:11:01Z","timestamp":1792062661933,"version":"4.4.0"},"reference-count":73,"publisher":"SAGE Publications","issue":"8","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2003,9,1]],"date-time":"2003-09-01T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1062374400000},"content-version":"tdm","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/journals.sagepub.com\/page\/policies\/text-and-data-mining-license"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Can J Psychiatry"],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2003,9]]},"abstract":"<jats:p>In this paper, we give an overview of the diagnostic categories of autism and other pervasive developmental disorders (PDDs) and discuss the changes in the DSM classification system over the past 20 years. We describe each subtype of PDD, along with comorbid psychiatric conditions, assessment guidelines, and tools for diagnosis. The epidemiology of autism has generated much discussion and research; we report the most recent data, as well as recent findings about controversial issues purporting to cause the increased prevalence rate observed in the past decade. Finally, we discuss the prognosis for individuals with autism, indicating the challenges faced by patients, families, and professionals aiming to optimize their outcome.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1177\/070674370304800803","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2017,7,14]],"date-time":"2017-07-14T03:07:36Z","timestamp":1500001656000},"page":"517-525","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":141,"title":["Diagnosis and Epidemiology of Autism Spectrum Disorders"],"prefix":"10.1177","volume":"48","author":[{"given":"Lee","family":"Tidmarsh","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Assistant Professor of Psychiatry, McGill University Hospital Centre, Montreal, Quebec"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Fred R","family":"Volkmar","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Harris Professor of Child Psychiatry, Pediatrics, and Psychology, Yale Child Study Center, New Haven, Connecticut"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"179","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2003,9,1]]},"reference":[{"key":"bibr1-070674370304800803","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1177\/070674370304800804"},{"key":"bibr2-070674370304800803","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1177\/070674370304800802"},{"key":"bibr3-070674370304800803","first-page":"217","volume":"2","author":"Kanner L.","year":"1943","journal-title":"Nervous Child"},{"key":"bibr4-070674370304800803","volume-title":"Childhood disintegrative disorder","author":"Volkmar FR","year":"1997"},{"key":"bibr5-070674370304800803","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1939-0025.1956.tb06162.x"},{"issue":"1","key":"bibr6-070674370304800803","first-page":"23","volume":"5","author":"Gallo C","year":"2003","journal-title":"Trends Evidence-Based Neuropsychiatry"},{"key":"bibr7-070674370304800803","volume-title":"Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders","author":"American Psychiatric Association","year":"1980","edition":"3"},{"key":"bibr8-070674370304800803","first-page":"2527","volume-title":"Comprehensive textbook of psychiatry. Volume 3","author":"Goldfarb W.","year":"1980"},{"key":"bibr9-070674370304800803","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1097\/00004583-199105000-00004"},{"key":"bibr10-070674370304800803","volume-title":"Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders. Revised","author":"American Psychiatric Association","year":"1987","edition":"3"},{"key":"bibr11-070674370304800803","volume-title":"Pervasive developmental disorder not otherwise specified","author":"Towbin K.","year":"1996"},{"key":"bibr12-070674370304800803","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1097\/00004583-199011000-00003"},{"key":"bibr13-070674370304800803","volume-title":"The ICD-10 classification of mental and behavioural disorders: Clinical descriptions and diagnostic guidelines","author":"WHO","year":"1992"},{"key":"bibr14-070674370304800803","first-page":"5","volume-title":"Handbook of autism and pervasive developmental disorders","author":"Volkmar F","year":"1997"},{"key":"bibr15-070674370304800803","volume-title":"Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders","author":"American Psychiatric Association","year":"1994","edition":"4"},{"key":"bibr16-070674370304800803","volume-title":"Rett's syndrome: A pervasive developmental disorder","author":"Van Acker R.","year":"1997"},{"key":"bibr17-070674370304800803","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/13810"},{"key":"bibr18-070674370304800803","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/S0733-8619(02)00022-1"},{"key":"bibr19-070674370304800803","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1177\/1362361302006002002"},{"key":"bibr20-070674370304800803","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/BF01837709"},{"key":"bibr21-070674370304800803","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1469-7610.1995.tb01361.x"},{"key":"bibr22-070674370304800803","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1177\/070674370004500806"},{"key":"bibr23-070674370304800803","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1469-7610.1997.tb02354.x"},{"key":"bibr24-070674370304800803","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1023\/A:1021943802493"},{"key":"bibr25-070674370304800803","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1097\/00004583-200302000-00021"},{"key":"bibr26-070674370304800803","first-page":"388","volume-title":"Handbook of autism and pervasive developmental disorders","author":"Dykens E","year":"1997","edition":"2"},{"key":"bibr27-070674370304800803","volume-title":"Diagnostic instruments in autism spectrum disorders","author":"Lord C.","year":"1997"},{"key":"bibr28-070674370304800803","volume-title":"The Childhood Autism Rating Scale","author":"Schopler E","year":"1988"},{"key":"bibr29-070674370304800803","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/BF02172145"},{"key":"bibr30-070674370304800803","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1023\/A:1005592401947"},{"key":"bibr31-070674370304800803","volume-title":"Wechsler Preschool and Primary Scale of Intelligence","author":"Wechsler D.","year":"1989"},{"key":"bibr32-070674370304800803","volume-title":"Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children","author":"Wechsler D.","year":"1991","edition":"3"},{"key":"bibr33-070674370304800803","volume-title":"Guide for administering and scoring the Stanford Binet Intelligence Scale","author":"Thorndike R","year":"1986","edition":"4"},{"key":"bibr34-070674370304800803","volume-title":"scales of early learning","author":"Mullen E.","year":"1997"},{"key":"bibr35-070674370304800803","volume-title":"Leiter International Performance Scale","author":"Leiter RG","year":"1980"},{"key":"bibr36-070674370304800803","volume-title":"Vineland Adaptive Behavior Scales (Expanded edition)","author":"Sparrow S","year":"1985"},{"key":"bibr37-070674370304800803","volume-title":"Peabody picture vocabulary test-revised","author":"Dunn LM","year":"1981"},{"key":"bibr38-070674370304800803","volume-title":"Reynell Developmental Language Scales. US ed","author":"Reynell J.","year":"1990"},{"key":"bibr39-070674370304800803","volume-title":"The Beery Buktenica Developmental Test of Visual Motor Intergration","author":"Beery K","year":"1997"},{"key":"bibr40-070674370304800803","unstructured":"WeeFIM. Buffalo: Uniform Data System for Medical Rehabilitation; 2000."},{"key":"bibr41-070674370304800803","volume-title":"The Peabody Developmental Motor Scales","year":"1983"},{"key":"bibr42-070674370304800803","volume-title":"Sensory Iintegration and praxis tests","author":"Ayres AJ","year":"1989"},{"key":"bibr43-070674370304800803","volume-title":"Aberrant behaviour checklist","author":"Aman M","year":"1994"},{"key":"bibr44-070674370304800803","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/0891-4222(95)00037-2"},{"key":"bibr45-070674370304800803","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1017\/S0033291799008508"},{"issue":"1","key":"bibr46-070674370304800803","first-page":"29","volume":"5","author":"Fombonne E.","year":"2003","journal-title":"Trends in Evidence-Based Neuropsychiatry"},{"key":"bibr47-070674370304800803","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1001\/jama.289.1.87"},{"key":"bibr48-070674370304800803","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/S1056-4993(02)00050-0"},{"key":"bibr49-070674370304800803","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/BF00584048"},{"key":"bibr50-070674370304800803","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1136\/bmj.324.7334.393"},{"key":"bibr51-070674370304800803","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(97)11096-0"},{"key":"bibr52-070674370304800803","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/sj.mp.4001266"},{"key":"bibr53-070674370304800803","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(99)01239-8"},{"key":"bibr54-070674370304800803","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1542\/peds.108.4.e58"},{"key":"bibr55-070674370304800803","volume-title":"Epidemiologic studies of MMR vaccine and autism","author":"Stoto MA","year":"2001"},{"key":"bibr56-070674370304800803","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMoa021134"},{"key":"bibr57-070674370304800803","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJM200303063481016"},{"key":"bibr58-070674370304800803","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJM200303063481016"},{"key":"bibr59-070674370304800803","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1542\/peds.111.3.674"},{"key":"bibr60-070674370304800803","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1093\/pch\/7.9.623"},{"key":"bibr61-070674370304800803","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/S1474-4422(02)00160-6"},{"key":"bibr62-070674370304800803","volume-title":"Neurological aspects of autism. Handbook of autism and pervasive developmental disorders","author":"Minshew NJ","year":"1997"},{"key":"bibr63-070674370304800803","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1097\/00004583-199001000-00020"},{"key":"bibr64-070674370304800803","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"122","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1469-8749.1984.tb04417.x","volume":"26","author":"Rutter M.","year":"1984","journal-title":"Dev Med Child Neurol"},{"key":"bibr65-070674370304800803","first-page":"1310","volume":"126","author":"Deykin EY","year":"1979","journal-title":"Am J Psychiatry"},{"key":"bibr66-070674370304800803","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1034\/j.1600-0447.2000.102005321.x"},{"key":"bibr67-070674370304800803","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/S0890-8567(99)80003-3"},{"key":"bibr68-070674370304800803","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1023\/A:1016330802348"},{"key":"bibr69-070674370304800803","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/1469-7610.00434"},{"key":"bibr70-070674370304800803","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1176\/ajp.148.12.1705"},{"key":"bibr71-070674370304800803","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/S1056-4993(02)00056-1"},{"key":"bibr72-070674370304800803","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1023\/A:1022270118899"},{"key":"bibr73-070674370304800803","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/BF00566668"}],"container-title":["The Canadian Journal of Psychiatry"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/journals.sagepub.com\/doi\/pdf\/10.1177\/070674370304800803","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/journals.sagepub.com\/doi\/pdf\/10.1177\/070674370304800803","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,28]],"date-time":"2026-04-28T16:13:46Z","timestamp":1777392826000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/journals.sagepub.com\/doi\/10.1177\/070674370304800803"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2003,9]]},"references-count":73,"journal-issue":{"issue":"8","published-print":{"date-parts":[[2003,9]]}},"alternative-id":["10.1177\/070674370304800803"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1177\/070674370304800803","relation":{},"ISSN":["0706-7437","1497-0015"],"issn-type":[{"value":"0706-7437","type":"print"},{"value":"1497-0015","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2003,9]]}}}