{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,4]],"date-time":"2026-05-04T19:36:11Z","timestamp":1777923371503,"version":"3.51.4"},"reference-count":90,"publisher":"SAGE Publications","issue":"3","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,7]],"date-time":"2026-02-07T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1770422400000},"content-version":"tdm","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/journals.sagepub.com\/page\/policies\/text-and-data-mining-license"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["journals.sagepub.com"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["Toxicol Ind Health"],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2026,3]]},"abstract":"<jats:p>The Globally Harmonized System (GHS) is a crucial framework for chemical hazard communication, especially in protecting workers from skin sensitizers. A critical assessment of the principles, issues, and challenges around classification of skin sensitization in GHS is warranted. Classification of dermal sensitizers relies on a weight of evidence (WoE) approach that incorporates human, animal, and non-test data. However, current testing methods have limitations in sensitivity, specificity, and predictive accuracy. Current test methods take into account the issue of potency and thresholds for sensitization. However, the focus on induction thresholds rather than induction and elicitation thresholds may create a gap in protecting already sensitized individuals since elicitation thresholds are in some cases lower than induction thresholds. While the sensitization process may take weeks or years, current test methods are largely acute in nature, potentially incapable of identifying all (chronic) sensitizers. Moreover, current methods used for classification of skin sensitizers only take into account the dermal route, whereas some chemicals may cause dermal sensitization through other routes, which presents a significant limitation, especially when considering non-animal testing methods. Finally, lack of UV irradiation in current methods may inadvertently miss potential photosensitizers, which may result in misclassification. Continuous refinement of testing methods and integrating novel approaches are essential to improve GHS classifications for skin sensitizers.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1177\/07482337261422823","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,7]],"date-time":"2026-02-07T19:05:07Z","timestamp":1770491107000},"page":"100-112","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1177\/sage-journals-update-policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Classification of dermal sensitizers under the globally harmonized system of classification and labelling of chemicals (GHS): A critical review of the principles and current challenges"],"prefix":"10.1177","volume":"42","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-6547-7692","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Wells","family":"Utembe","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"National Institute for Occupational Health (NIOH)"},{"name":"University of Cape Town"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Charlene","family":"Andraos","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"National Institute for Occupational Health (NIOH)"},{"name":"University of the Witwatersrand"},{"name":"North West University"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"179","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,7]]},"reference":[{"key":"e_1_3_4_2_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1021\/acs.chemrestox.2c00407"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_3_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.taap.2014.12.014"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_4_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1039\/C6GC01836J"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_5_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1039\/C6GC01492E"},{"issue":"1","key":"e_1_3_4_6_1","first-page":"51","article-title":"Potential health effects associated with dermal exposure to occupational chemicals","volume":"8","author":"Anderson SE","year":"2014","unstructured":"Anderson SE, Meade BJ (2014) Potential health effects associated with dermal exposure to occupational chemicals. Environmental Health Insights 8(Suppl 1): 51\u201362.","journal-title":"Environmental Health Insights"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_7_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/S0378-4274(02)00513-1"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_8_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1080\/10408440500534149"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_9_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s13671-019-00271-4"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_10_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1080\/15569520902938032"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_11_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1600-0536.1996.tb02332.x"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_12_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1600-0536.2007.01009.x"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_13_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/jat.1545"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_14_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.yrtph.2011.07.004"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_15_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/S0278-6915(97)00158-0"},{"issue":"4","key":"e_1_3_4_16_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"261","DOI":"10.1002\/(SICI)1099-1263(199907\/08)19:4<261::AID-JAT572>3.0.CO;2-5","article-title":"A comparison of statistical approaches to the derivation of EC3 values from local lymph node assay dose responses","volume":"19","author":"Basketter DA","year":"1999","unstructured":"Basketter DA, Lea LJ, Dickens A, et al. (1999) A comparison of statistical approaches to the derivation of EC3 values from local lymph node assay dose responses. Journal of Applied Toxicology: An International Forum Devoted to Research and Methods Emphasizing Direct Clinical, Industrial and Environmental Applications 19(4): 261\u2013266.","journal-title":"Journal of Applied Toxicology: An International Forum Devoted to Research and Methods Emphasizing Direct Clinical, Industrial and Environmental Applications"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_17_1","volume-title":"Frequency of Skin Sensitization to Specific Substances and in Specific Occupational Groups","author":"BAUA","year":"2021","unstructured":"BAUA (2021) Frequency of Skin Sensitization to Specific Substances and in Specific Occupational Groups. BAUA."},{"key":"e_1_3_4_18_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3390\/toxics11040392"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_19_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s00204-017-2088-5"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_20_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/bjd.21830"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_21_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1600-0536.1999.tb05984.x"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_22_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1600-0536.2008.01477.x"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_23_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.yrtph.2019.104445"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_24_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1080\/15459624.2015.1072277"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_25_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tiv.2016.04.008"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_26_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1159\/000246080"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_27_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tox.2012.05.002"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_28_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1034\/j.1600-0536.2003.00107.x"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_29_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.yrtph.2020.104755"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_30_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.yrtph.2023.105458"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_31_1","first-page":"40","article-title":"Quantification, potency, and risk assessment: induction versus elicitation","volume":"40","author":"Gerberick GF","year":"2008","unstructured":"Gerberick GF (2008) Quantification, potency, and risk assessment: induction versus elicitation. Skin Sensitization in Chemical Risk Assessment 40: 40\u201345.","journal-title":"Skin Sensitization in Chemical Risk Assessment"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_32_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/cod.13167"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_33_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1021\/acs.chemrestox.2c00383"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_34_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3109\/15376516.2010.484622"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_35_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.23749\/mdl.v116i4.17079"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_36_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1097\/ACI.0000000000000717"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_37_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s00204-023-03656-4"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_38_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1177\/19458924241246855"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_39_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1600-0536.1996.tb02400.x"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_40_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1053\/ajcd.1991.2302"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_41_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1021\/tx7002239"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_42_1","first-page":"8","article-title":"Local lymph node data for the evaluation of skin sensitization alternatives: a second compilation","volume":"21","author":"Kern PS","year":"2010","unstructured":"Kern PS, Gerberick FG, Ryan CA, et al. (2010) Local lymph node data for the evaluation of skin sensitization alternatives: a second compilation. DERM 21: 8\u201332.","journal-title":"DERM"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_43_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.35371\/aoem.2022.34.e7"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_44_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1093\/toxsci\/59.2.198"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_45_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1093\/toxsci\/kfq346"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_46_1","first-page":"1","article-title":"Quantitative risk assessment for skin sensitization: success or failure?","volume":"83","author":"Kimber I","year":"2016","unstructured":"Kimber I, Gerberick G, Basketter D (2016) Quantitative risk assessment for skin sensitization: success or failure? Regulatory Toxicology and Pharmacology 83: 1\u20135.","journal-title":"Regulatory Toxicology and Pharmacology"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_47_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1600-0536.1995.tb00801.x"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_48_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/jbm.a.30897"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_49_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/cod.14031"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_50_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.fct.2021.112705"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_51_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/978-1-4939-8549-4_8"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_52_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.4103\/ijmr.IJMR_626_16"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_53_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/0300-483X(95)03279-O"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_54_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/j.0105-1873.2005.00676.x"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_55_1","first-page":"305","volume-title":"Allergy E-Book","author":"Maestrelli P","year":"2011","unstructured":"Maestrelli P, Boschetto P, Dykewicz MS (2011) Occupational allergy. In: Allergy E-Book. Elsevier, p. 305."},{"key":"e_1_3_4_56_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ymeth.2006.06.017"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_57_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/0300-483X(80)90050-5"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_58_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1600-0536.1993.tb03420.x"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_59_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.2310\/6620.2004.04013"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_60_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3109\/15569527.2010.544277"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_61_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.2486\/indhealth.MS1267"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_62_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1097\/DER.0000000000000684"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_63_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.yrtph.2023.105333"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_64_1","volume-title":"OECD Guideline for the Testing of Chemicals: Skin Sensitization: Local Lymph Node Assay","author":"OECD","year":"2010","unstructured":"OECD (2010) OECD Guideline for the Testing of Chemicals: Skin Sensitization: Local Lymph Node Assay. OECD."},{"key":"e_1_3_4_65_1","volume-title":"Analysis of Llna Reference Data to Conclude on Predictivity of Alternative Methods for Skin Sensitisation for Lipophilic Chemicals","author":"OECD","year":"2021","unstructured":"OECD (2021) Analysis of Llna Reference Data to Conclude on Predictivity of Alternative Methods for Skin Sensitisation for Lipophilic Chemicals. OECD."},{"key":"e_1_3_4_66_1","volume-title":"Defined Approaches for Skin Sensitisation","author":"OECD","year":"2023","unstructured":"OECD (2023) Defined Approaches for Skin Sensitisation. OECD."},{"key":"e_1_3_4_67_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.26724\/2079-8334-2024-4-90-107-111"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_68_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1398-9995.1981.tb01874.x"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_69_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/nnano.2011.10"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_70_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"377","DOI":"10.1002\/jat.1289","article-title":"Determinants of skin sensitisation potential","volume":"28","author":"Roberts DW","year":"2008","unstructured":"Roberts DW, Aptula AO (2008) Determinants of skin sensitisation potential. Journal of Applied Toxicology: International Journal 28: 377\u2013387.","journal-title":"Journal of Applied Toxicology: International Journal"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_71_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.yrtph.2023.105402"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_72_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/0300-483X(90)90012-6"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_73_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-031-52057-0_2"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_74_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/S0045-6535(00)00084-9"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_75_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/mco2.386"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_76_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1186\/1710-1492-4-2-59"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_77_1","volume-title":"Memorandum on Use of Human Data in Risk Assessment of Skin Sensitisation SCCS\/1567\/15","author":"SCCS","year":"2015","unstructured":"SCCS (2015) Memorandum on Use of Human Data in Risk Assessment of Skin Sensitisation SCCS\/1567\/15. SCCS."},{"key":"e_1_3_4_78_1","first-page":"249","article-title":"The identification of photoallergic potential in the local lymph node assay","volume":"8","author":"Scholes EW","year":"1991","unstructured":"Scholes EW, Basketter DA, Lovell WW, et al. (1991) The identification of photoallergic potential in the local lymph node assay. Photodermatology, Photoimmunology & Photomedicine 8: 249\u2013254.","journal-title":"Photodermatology, Photoimmunology & Photomedicine"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_79_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1093\/toxsci\/kfu026"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_80_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jchas.2008.10.001"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_81_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/S0278-6915(00)00147-2"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_82_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1080\/10803548.2015.1081764"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_83_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/cod.14109"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_84_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s11882-024-01144-y"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_85_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.yrtph.2018.02.014"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_86_1","first-page":"10","volume-title":"Globally Harmonized System of Classification and Labelling of Chemicals (GHS)","author":"UN","year":"2023","unstructured":"UN (2023) Globally Harmonized System of Classification and Labelling of Chemicals (GHS). United Nations, p. 10."},{"key":"e_1_3_4_87_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.fct.2017.03.031"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_88_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/cod.14236"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_89_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.yrtph.2007.11.008"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_90_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1097\/DER.0000000000000277"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_91_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1080\/15569520902793627"}],"container-title":["Toxicology and Industrial Health"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/journals.sagepub.com\/doi\/pdf\/10.1177\/07482337261422823","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/journals.sagepub.com\/doi\/full-xml\/10.1177\/07482337261422823","content-type":"application\/xml","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/journals.sagepub.com\/doi\/pdf\/10.1177\/07482337261422823","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,1]],"date-time":"2026-05-01T20:44:51Z","timestamp":1777668291000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/journals.sagepub.com\/doi\/10.1177\/07482337261422823"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,7]]},"references-count":90,"journal-issue":{"issue":"3","published-print":{"date-parts":[[2026,3]]}},"alternative-id":["10.1177\/07482337261422823"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1177\/07482337261422823","relation":{},"ISSN":["0748-2337","1477-0393"],"issn-type":[{"value":"0748-2337","type":"print"},{"value":"1477-0393","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,7]]}}}