{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,6]],"date-time":"2026-10-06T13:36:27Z","timestamp":1791293787702,"version":"4.1.0"},"reference-count":131,"publisher":"SAGE Publications","issue":"2","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2023,9,20]],"date-time":"2023-09-20T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1695168000000},"content-version":"tdm","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/journals.sagepub.com\/page\/policies\/text-and-data-mining-license"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["journals.sagepub.com"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["J Intensive Care Med"],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2024,2]]},"abstract":"<jats:p>Electrical storm (ES) is characterized by three or more discrete sustained ventricular tachyarrhythmia episodes occurring within a limited time frame (generally\u2009\u2264\u200924\u2005h) or an incessant ventricular tachyarrhythmia lasting\u2009&gt;\u200912\u2005h. In patients with an implantable cardioverterdefibrillator (ICD), ES is defined as three or more appropriate device therapies, separated from each other by at least 5\u2005min, which occur within a 24-h period. ES may constitute a medical emergency, depending on the number arrhythmic episodes, their duration, the type, and the cycle length of the ventricular arrhythmias, as well as the underlying ventricular function. This narrative review was facilitated by a search of MEDLINE to identify peer-reviewed clinical trials, randomized controlled trials, meta-analyses, and other clinically relevant studies. The search was limited to English-language reports published between 1999 and 2023. ES was searched using the terms mechanisms, genetics, channelopathies, management, pharmacological therapy, sedation, neuraxial modulation, cardiac sympathetic denervation, ICDs, and structural heart disease. Google and Google scholar as well as bibliographies of identified articles were reviewed for additional references. This manuscript examines the current strategies available to treat ES and compares pharmacological and invasive treatment strategies to diminish ES recurrence, morbidity, and mortality.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1177\/08850666231192050","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2023,9,21]],"date-time":"2023-09-21T02:38:42Z","timestamp":1695263922000},"page":"99-117","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1177\/sage-journals-update-policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":3,"title":["Etiologies, Mechanisms, Management, and Outcomes of Electrical Storm"],"prefix":"10.1177","volume":"39","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-0889-411X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Richard G.","family":"Trohman","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Section of Electrophysiology, Division of Cardiology, Department of Internal Medicine, Rush University Medical Center, Chicago, IL, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"179","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,9,20]]},"reference":[{"key":"bibr1-08850666231192050","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1093\/eurheartj\/ehac262"},{"key":"bibr2-08850666231192050","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.hlc.2018.10.005"},{"key":"bibr3-08850666231192050","unstructured":"Passman R. Electrical storm and incessant ventricular tachycardia. Accessed April 6, 2023. https:\/\/www.uptodate.com\/contents\/electrical-storm-and-incessant-ventricular-tachycardia?search=electrical%20atorm& source=search_result&selectedTitle=1\u223c36 &usage_type=default&display_rank=1"},{"key":"bibr4-08850666231192050","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/clc.20949"},{"key":"bibr5-08850666231192050","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1093\/europace\/euq428"},{"key":"bibr6-08850666231192050","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1080\/14017431.2019.1605095"},{"key":"bibr7-08850666231192050","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cjca.2021.12.015"},{"issue":"40","key":"bibr8-08850666231192050","first-page":"2986","volume":"38","author":"Sutherland GR","year":"2017","journal-title":"Eur Heart J"},{"key":"bibr9-08850666231192050","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1093\/eurheartj\/ehl276"},{"key":"bibr10-08850666231192050","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.hrthm.2017.08.022"},{"key":"bibr11-08850666231192050","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/jce.13117"},{"key":"bibr12-08850666231192050","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jacep.2018.05.007"},{"key":"bibr13-08850666231192050","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jacep.2023.01.012"},{"key":"bibr14-08850666231192050","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jtcvs.2017.06.002"},{"key":"bibr15-08850666231192050","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ahj.2007.01.040"},{"key":"bibr16-08850666231192050","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.31083\/j.rcm2305164"},{"key":"bibr17-08850666231192050","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1093\/eurheartj\/ehv695"},{"key":"bibr18-08850666231192050","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1161\/CIRCEP.120.009726"},{"key":"bibr19-08850666231192050","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1161\/CIRCEP.116.004357"},{"key":"bibr20-08850666231192050","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jacep.2020.04.025"},{"key":"bibr21-08850666231192050","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1093\/europace\/eut304"},{"key":"bibr22-08850666231192050","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jacep.2019.11.012"},{"key":"bibr23-08850666231192050","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1093\/eurheartj\/ehi726"},{"key":"bibr24-08850666231192050","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1093\/ehjacc\/zuac044"},{"key":"bibr25-08850666231192050","volume-title":"StatPearls [Internet]. Treasure Island (FL)","author":"Ghzally Y","year":"2023"},{"key":"bibr26-08850666231192050","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.hrthm.2009.11.027"},{"key":"bibr27-08850666231192050","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.hrthm.2016.06.007"},{"key":"bibr28-08850666231192050","unstructured":"Stiles MK. Implantable cardioverter-defibrillators: Optimal programming. Accessed April 1, 2023. https:\/\/www.uptodate.com\/contents\/implantable-cardioverter-defibrillators-optimal- programming?search=optiaml%20implantable%20cardioverter%20defibrillator%20programming&source=search_result&selectedTitle =1\u223c150&usage_type=default&display_rank=1."},{"key":"bibr29-08850666231192050","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jacc.2008.05.011"},{"key":"bibr30-08850666231192050","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1093\/eurheartj\/ehp247"},{"key":"bibr31-08850666231192050","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMoa1211107"},{"key":"bibr32-08850666231192050","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1001\/jama.2013.4598"},{"key":"bibr33-08850666231192050","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/jce.12273"},{"key":"bibr34-08850666231192050","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jacc.2006.03.037"},{"key":"bibr35-08850666231192050","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.hrthm.2020.07.032"},{"key":"bibr36-08850666231192050","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.hrthm.2015.11.018"},{"key":"bibr37-08850666231192050","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.hrthm.2019.02.034"},{"key":"bibr38-08850666231192050","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1161\/01.CIR.102.7.742"},{"key":"bibr39-08850666231192050","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.pcad.2021.06.007"},{"key":"bibr40-08850666231192050","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1001\/jama.298.11.1312"},{"key":"bibr41-08850666231192050","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jacc.2018.02.056"},{"key":"bibr42-08850666231192050","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jacc.2018.02.058"},{"key":"bibr43-08850666231192050","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.hrthm.2016.03.004"},{"key":"bibr44-08850666231192050","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(97)05281-1"},{"key":"bibr45-08850666231192050","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ahj.2015.07.023"},{"key":"bibr46-08850666231192050","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1161\/JAHA.121.023762"},{"issue":"1","key":"bibr47-08850666231192050","first-page":"20","volume":"29","author":"Sorajja D","year":"2015","journal-title":"J Biomed Res"},{"key":"bibr48-08850666231192050","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1161\/CIRCEP.118.007280"},{"issue":"2","key":"bibr49-08850666231192050","volume":"41","author":"Mazzanti A","year":"2020","journal-title":"Eur Heart J."},{"key":"bibr50-08850666231192050","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1161\/CIRCEP.115.003109"},{"key":"bibr51-08850666231192050","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1161\/01.CIR.0000143159.30585.90"},{"key":"bibr52-08850666231192050","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1540-8167.1998.tb01844.x"},{"key":"bibr53-08850666231192050","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1161\/01.CIR.100.15.1660"},{"key":"bibr54-08850666231192050","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/0735-1097(95)00613-3"},{"key":"bibr55-08850666231192050","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1097\/MD.0000000000016961"},{"key":"bibr56-08850666231192050","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1001\/jamacardio.2017.1320"},{"key":"bibr57-08850666231192050","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.joa.2013.02.003"},{"key":"bibr58-08850666231192050","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.hrthm.2007.02.014"},{"key":"bibr59-08850666231192050","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s40119-016-0072-4"},{"key":"bibr60-08850666231192050","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jacc.2017.10.053"},{"issue":"17","key":"bibr61-08850666231192050","first-page":"1329","volume":"38","author":"Ortiz M","year":"2017","journal-title":"Eur Heart J"},{"key":"bibr62-08850666231192050","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3390\/jcm11113233"},{"key":"bibr63-08850666231192050","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1001\/jama.295.2.165"},{"key":"bibr64-08850666231192050","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3390\/medicina59020405"},{"key":"bibr65-08850666231192050","unstructured":"Committee on Quality Management and Departmental Administration. Continuum of Depth of Sedation: Definition of General Anesthesia and Levels of Sedation\/Analgesia. American Society of Anesthesiologists. 2019 Oct 23; Accessed April 7, 2023. https:\/\/www.asahq.org\/standards-and-guidelines\/continuum-of-depth-of-sedation-definition-of-general-anesthesia-and-levels-of-sedationanalgesia"},{"key":"bibr66-08850666231192050","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1161\/CIRCULATIONAHA.120.047468"},{"key":"bibr67-08850666231192050","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.hrthm.2015.06.018"},{"key":"bibr68-08850666231192050","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s10840-022-01350-6"},{"key":"bibr69-08850666231192050","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/S0735-1097(03)00398-X"},{"key":"bibr70-08850666231192050","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1540-8167.2010.01889.x"},{"key":"bibr71-08850666231192050","first-page":"849","volume":"3","author":"Ramoul K","year":"2012","journal-title":"J Innovations Cardiac Rhythm Manage"},{"key":"bibr72-08850666231192050","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1093\/eurheartj\/ehs453"},{"key":"bibr73-08850666231192050","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1161\/JAHA.116.003629"},{"key":"bibr74-08850666231192050","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.hrthm.2019.06.008"},{"key":"bibr75-08850666231192050","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1053\/j.jvca.2013.08.019"},{"key":"bibr76-08850666231192050","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s00059-009-3289-3"},{"key":"bibr77-08850666231192050","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1161\/CIRCULATIONAHA.106.686534"},{"key":"bibr78-08850666231192050","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1080\/22201173.2010.10872684"},{"key":"bibr79-08850666231192050","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1093\/europace\/euaa232"},{"key":"bibr80-08850666231192050","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1164\/rccm.2107138"},{"key":"bibr81-08850666231192050","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1161\/CIRCRESAHA.116.304679"},{"key":"bibr82-08850666231192050","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jacc.2018.12.064"},{"key":"bibr83-08850666231192050","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1161\/JAHA.117.007080"},{"key":"bibr84-08850666231192050","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1161\/CIRCULATIONAHA.109.929703"},{"key":"bibr85-08850666231192050","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1093\/bja\/27.12.616"},{"key":"bibr86-08850666231192050","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1093\/europace\/euaa319"},{"key":"bibr87-08850666231192050","volume-title":"StatPearls [Internet]","author":"Piraccini E"},{"key":"bibr88-08850666231192050","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1161\/CIRCEP.118.007118"},{"key":"bibr89-08850666231192050","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jacep.2017.06.006"},{"key":"bibr90-08850666231192050","volume":"20","author":"Jonnesco T","year":"1921","journal-title":"Presse m\u00e9d"},{"key":"bibr91-08850666231192050","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijcard.2017.03.020"},{"key":"bibr92-08850666231192050","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1161\/CIRCEP.112.971754"},{"key":"bibr93-08850666231192050","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1161\/01.CIR.0000125523.14403.1E"},{"key":"bibr94-08850666231192050","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1161\/CIRCULATIONAHA.115.015731"},{"key":"bibr95-08850666231192050","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/jce.14624"},{"key":"bibr96-08850666231192050","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1161\/JAHA.120.018371"},{"key":"bibr97-08850666231192050","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jacep.2020.12.001"},{"key":"bibr98-08850666231192050","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.hrthm.2013.11.028"},{"key":"bibr99-08850666231192050","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jacc.2017.04.035"},{"key":"bibr100-08850666231192050","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.hrthm.2013.12.038"},{"key":"bibr101-08850666231192050","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s00392-016-1012-y"},{"key":"bibr102-08850666231192050","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jacep.2020.07.019"},{"key":"bibr103-08850666231192050","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.amjcard.2016.07.036"},{"key":"bibr104-08850666231192050","unstructured":"Propensity Score Matching. Accessed June 16, 2023. https:\/\/dimewiki.worldbank.org\/Propensity_Score_Matching"},{"key":"bibr105-08850666231192050","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.4022\/jafib.2404"},{"key":"bibr106-08850666231192050","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev-med-041818-020033"},{"key":"bibr107-08850666231192050","volume":"25","author":"Dusi V","year":"2023","journal-title":"Eur Heart J Suppl"},{"key":"bibr108-08850666231192050","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jacc.2023.03.424"},{"issue":"1","key":"bibr109-08850666231192050","volume":"17","author":"Cronin EM","year":"2020","journal-title":"Heart Rhythm"},{"key":"bibr110-08850666231192050","volume-title":"StatPearls [Internet]","author":"Goyal A","year":"2023"},{"key":"bibr111-08850666231192050","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s10840-022-01287-w"},{"key":"bibr112-08850666231192050","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s10840-017-0291-1"},{"key":"bibr113-08850666231192050","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.hrthm.2015.05.036"},{"key":"bibr114-08850666231192050","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jacep.2017.01.020"},{"key":"bibr115-08850666231192050","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1161\/CIRCEP.114.001568"},{"key":"bibr116-08850666231192050","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1161\/CIRCEP.113.000537"},{"key":"bibr117-08850666231192050","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1540-8159.1999.tb00311.x"},{"key":"bibr118-08850666231192050","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/jce.15121"},{"key":"bibr119-08850666231192050","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/jce.15379"},{"key":"bibr120-08850666231192050","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.15420\/aer.2022.28"},{"key":"bibr121-08850666231192050","author":"Tedrow U","year":"2023","journal-title":"J Am Coll Cardiol EP"},{"key":"bibr122-08850666231192050","volume":"11","author":"Talib AK","year":"2018","journal-title":"Cir Arrhythm Electrophysiol"},{"key":"bibr123-08850666231192050","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1161\/CIRCEP.118.006675"},{"key":"bibr124-08850666231192050","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.hrthm.2017.09.005"},{"key":"bibr125-08850666231192050","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1093\/europace\/euac238"},{"key":"bibr126-08850666231192050","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMoa1613773"},{"key":"bibr127-08850666231192050","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1161\/CIRCULATIONAHA.118.038261"},{"key":"bibr128-08850666231192050","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.hrthm.2020.03.013"},{"key":"bibr129-08850666231192050","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.hrcr.2019.03.004"},{"key":"bibr130-08850666231192050","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.radonc.2018.04.025"},{"key":"bibr131-08850666231192050","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/ccd.28329"}],"container-title":["Journal of Intensive Care Medicine"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/journals.sagepub.com\/doi\/pdf\/10.1177\/08850666231192050","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/journals.sagepub.com\/doi\/full-xml\/10.1177\/08850666231192050","content-type":"application\/xml","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/journals.sagepub.com\/doi\/pdf\/10.1177\/08850666231192050","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,29]],"date-time":"2026-04-29T22:57:43Z","timestamp":1777503463000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/journals.sagepub.com\/doi\/10.1177\/08850666231192050"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2023,9,20]]},"references-count":131,"journal-issue":{"issue":"2","published-print":{"date-parts":[[2024,2]]}},"alternative-id":["10.1177\/08850666231192050"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1177\/08850666231192050","relation":{},"ISSN":["0885-0666","1525-1489"],"issn-type":[{"value":"0885-0666","type":"print"},{"value":"1525-1489","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2023,9,20]]}}}