{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,4]],"date-time":"2026-05-04T00:33:08Z","timestamp":1777854788587,"version":"3.51.4"},"reference-count":57,"publisher":"SAGE Publications","issue":"15-16","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2021,4,16]],"date-time":"2021-04-16T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1618531200000},"content-version":"tdm","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/journals.sagepub.com\/page\/policies\/text-and-data-mining-license"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["journals.sagepub.com"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["J Interpers Violence"],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2022,8]]},"abstract":"<jats:p>The Bureau of Labor Statistics estimates that there are 2.53 million cooks and chefs in the United States. Of those, one in four reports experiencing physical violence in the workplace\u2014roughly 632,500 victims. While shocking, this figure fails to account for the psychological and sexual violence that also plagues commercial kitchens. Workplace harassment and bullying is not limited to the United States and has been documented in Scottish, English, Scandinavian, French, Malaysian, Korean, and Australian kitchens. Why is violence so prevalent in kitchens, and how has it become a behavioral norm? Using data from 50 in-depth interviews with kitchen workers and analysis of food media, this article shows that while kitchen workplace violence can be attributed to typical causes, such as occupational stress, there is an overlooked source: the normalization of violence through food media. By exploring television shows, like \u201cHell\u2019s Kitchen,\u201d and chef memoirs, like Bourdain\u2019s Kitchen Confidential, readers will see how bullying and harassment are romanticized in these mediums, glorified as a product of kitchen subculture, and consequently normalized in the kitchen.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1177\/08862605211005138","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2021,4,16]],"date-time":"2021-04-16T03:54:09Z","timestamp":1618545249000},"page":"NP13928-NP13951","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1177\/sage-journals-update-policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":7,"title":["The Normalization of Violence in Commercial Kitchens Through Food Media"],"prefix":"10.1177","volume":"37","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-8080-3510","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Ellen T.","family":"Meiser","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"University of Hawai\u2019i at Manoa, Honolulu, HI, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Penn","family":"Pantumsinchai","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"University of Hawai\u2019i at Manoa, Honolulu, HI, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"179","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,4,16]]},"reference":[{"key":"bibr1-08862605211005138","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tourman.2011.11.001"},{"key":"bibr2-08862605211005138","unstructured":"American Culinary Federation (ACF). (2008).\n                      Code of Professional Ethics\n                      . https:\/\/www.acfchefs.org\/download\/documents\/certify\/certification\/code_ethics.pdf"},{"key":"bibr3-08862605211005138","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1108\/IJCHM-09-2015-0471"},{"key":"bibr4-08862605211005138","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijhm.2007.09.001"},{"key":"bibr5-08862605211005138","author":"Bourdain A.","year":"2000","journal-title":"Kitchen confidential"},{"key":"bibr6-08862605211005138","author":"Bourdain A.","year":"2001","journal-title":"A cook\u2019s tour"},{"key":"bibr7-08862605211005138","author":"Bourdieu P.","year":"1984","journal-title":"Distinction"},{"key":"bibr8-08862605211005138","unstructured":"Bureau of Labor Statistics. (2019).\n                      Occupational outlook handbook : Chefs and head cooks\n                      .\n                      BLS.gov\n                      . https:\/\/www.bls.gov\/ooh\/food-preparation-and-serving\/chefs-and-head-cooks.htm"},{"key":"bibr9-08862605211005138","unstructured":"Bureau of Labor Statistics. (2020). Labor force statistics from the current population survey: Unemployment rate: Nonagricultural private wage and salary workers, food services and drinking places.\n                      BLS.gov\n                      . https:\/\/data.bls.gov\/timeseries\/LNU04034262amp%253bdata_tool=XGtable&output_view=data&include_graphs=true"},{"key":"bibr10-08862605211005138","unstructured":"California Legislative Information. (2020). Injunction.\n                      Code of Civil Procedure\n                      . https:\/\/leginfo.legislature.ca.gov\/faces\/codes_displaySection.xhtml?lawCode=CCP&sectionNum=527.8."},{"issue":"4","key":"bibr11-08862605211005138","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"47","DOI":"10.1525\/gfc.2003.3.4.46","volume":"3","author":"Chan A.","year":"2003","journal-title":"Gastronomica: The Journal of Food and Culture"},{"key":"bibr12-08862605211005138","author":"Dutton K.","year":"2012","journal-title":"The wisdom of psychopaths"},{"key":"bibr13-08862605211005138","first-page":"3","author":"Einarsen S.","year":"2011","journal-title":"In Bullying and harassment in the workplace"},{"key":"bibr14-08862605211005138","author":"Escoffier A.","year":"1997","journal-title":"Auguste Escoffier"},{"key":"bibr15-08862605211005138","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.2307\/2094525"},{"key":"bibr16-08862605211005138","author":"Fine G.","year":"1996","journal-title":"Kitchens"},{"key":"bibr17-08862605211005138","unstructured":"FRED Economic Research. (2020).\n                      Real disposable personal income: Per capita\n                      . https:\/\/fred.stlouisfed.org\/series\/A229RX0"},{"key":"bibr18-08862605211005138","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3138\/9781442627512"},{"key":"bibr19-08862605211005138","author":"Graham T.","year":"1999","journal-title":"Boiling point"},{"key":"bibr20-08862605211005138","author":"Guptill A.","year":"2017","journal-title":"Food and society"},{"key":"bibr21-08862605211005138","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.36019\/9780813571270"},{"key":"bibr22-08862605211005138","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1177\/1536504220920190"},{"key":"bibr23-08862605211005138","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1086\/227049"},{"key":"bibr24-08862605211005138","unstructured":"IMDB (Internet Movie Database). 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(2017). Ken Friedman, power restauranteur, is accused of sexual harassment.\n                      The New York Times\n                      . https:\/\/www.nytimes.com\/2017\/12\/12\/dining\/ken-friedman-sexual-harassment.html"},{"key":"bibr36-08862605211005138","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1108\/09596110710724143"},{"key":"bibr37-08862605211005138","unstructured":"National Center for Education Statistics. (2020). Trend generator: Postsecondary institutions. Institute of Education Sciences. https:\/\/nces.ed.gov\/ipeds\/TrendGenerator\/app\/answer\/1\/1?f=2%3D1%3B5%3D1"},{"key":"bibr38-08862605211005138","unstructured":"National Restaurant Association. (2016). Women-owned restaurants driving growth in 48 states, D.C. https:\/\/restaurant.org\/Articles\/News\/Women-owned-restaurants-driving-growth-in-48-state"},{"key":"bibr39-08862605211005138","unstructured":"Porter E. (2020). If restaurants go, what happens to cities?\n                      The New York Times\n                      . https:\/\/www.nytimes.com\/2020\/11\/03\/business\/economy\/cities-restaurants.html"},{"key":"bibr40-08862605211005138","unstructured":"Public Radio International (PRI). (2014).\n                      French Chefs Say They Shouldn\u2019t Have to Take the Heat to Stay in the Kitchen\n                      . https:\/\/www.pri.org\/stories\/2014-11-19\/french-chefs-say-they-shouldnt-have-take-heat-stay-kitchen"},{"key":"bibr41-08862605211005138","author":"Pyke N.","year":"2002","journal-title":"Cook give celebrity chefs a roasting"},{"key":"bibr42-08862605211005138","unstructured":"Rainey C. (2018). Chefs are fed up with Gordon Ramsay\u2019s cartoonish bullying.\n                      New York Magazine: Grub Street\n                      . http:\/\/www.grubstreet.com\/2018\/04\/chefs-call-out-gordon-ramsay-for-kitchen-abuse.html"},{"issue":"7","key":"bibr43-08862605211005138","first-page":"1","volume":"21","author":"Ram Y.","year":"2018","journal-title":"Current Issues in Tourism"},{"key":"bibr44-08862605211005138","author":"Ramsay G.","year":"2006","journal-title":"Roasting in hell\u2019s kitchen"},{"key":"bibr45-08862605211005138","unstructured":"Richardson N. (2019). Every chef and restaurant owner accused of sexual misconduct in the #MeToo era.\n                      New Yorker: Grub Street\n                      . https:\/\/www.grubstreet.com\/2018\/10\/how-chefs-and-restaurateurs-are-faring-post-metoo.html"},{"key":"bibr46-08862605211005138","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.5040\/9781350042193"},{"key":"bibr47-08862605211005138","author":"Ruhlman M.","year":"2006","journal-title":"The reach of a chef: Beyond the kitchen"},{"key":"bibr48-08862605211005138","unstructured":"Shah K. (2015).\n                      Yet Another French Chef Has Been Abusing His Staff\n                      . https:\/\/www.eater.com\/2015\/3\/12\/8204983\/yannick-alleno-french-paris-chef-harassment-violence-accusations"},{"key":"bibr49-08862605211005138","unstructured":"Simon C. (2014). Culinary schools speed the rise of hopeful chefs.\n                      The New York Times\n                      . https:\/\/www.nytimes.com\/2014\/03\/18\/education\/culinary-schools-speed-the-rise-of-hopeful-chefs.html"},{"key":"bibr50-08862605211005138","author":"Thielen A.","year":"2017","journal-title":"Give a girl a knife"},{"key":"bibr51-08862605211005138","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev.so.15.080189.001533"},{"key":"bibr52-08862605211005138","unstructured":"TV Tango. (2019).\n                      Hell\u2019s kitchen\n                      . http:\/\/www.tvtango.com\/series\/hells_kitchen\/episodes?filters%5Bday%5D=&filters%5Bseaso%5D=1&filters%5Bbroadcast%5D=No&filters%5Bmedia%5D=&commit.x=27&commit.y=15"},{"key":"bibr53-08862605211005138","unstructured":"Unilever Food Solutions. (2019). Why #FairKitchens? https:\/\/www.fairkitchens.com"},{"key":"bibr54-08862605211005138","unstructured":"United States Census Bureau. (2020). Time series\/trend charts: Food services. https:\/\/www.census.gov\/econ\/currentdata\/dbsearch?program=MARTS&startYear=1992&endYear=2020&categories%5B%5D=722&dataType=SM&geoLevel=US&adjusted=1&submit=GET+DATA&releaseScheduleId="},{"key":"bibr55-08862605211005138","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1108\/JHTI-09-2019-0105"},{"key":"bibr56-08862605211005138","author":"White M. P.","year":"2006","journal-title":"The devil in the kitchen"},{"key":"bibr57-08862605211005138","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Widom C. & Maxfield M. (2001). An update on the \u2018cycle of violence\u2019. National Institute of Justice: Research in Brief, 1\u20138. https:\/\/www.ojp.gov\/pdffiles1\/nij\/184894.pdf","DOI":"10.1037\/e528142006-001"}],"container-title":["Journal of Interpersonal Violence"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/journals.sagepub.com\/doi\/pdf\/10.1177\/08862605211005138","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/journals.sagepub.com\/doi\/full-xml\/10.1177\/08862605211005138","content-type":"application\/xml","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/journals.sagepub.com\/doi\/pdf\/10.1177\/08862605211005138","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,29]],"date-time":"2026-04-29T23:15:40Z","timestamp":1777504540000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/journals.sagepub.com\/doi\/10.1177\/08862605211005138"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2021,4,16]]},"references-count":57,"journal-issue":{"issue":"15-16","published-print":{"date-parts":[[2022,8]]}},"alternative-id":["10.1177\/08862605211005138"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1177\/08862605211005138","relation":{},"ISSN":["0886-2605","1552-6518"],"issn-type":[{"value":"0886-2605","type":"print"},{"value":"1552-6518","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2021,4,16]]}}}