{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,18]],"date-time":"2026-08-18T02:08:18Z","timestamp":1787018898383,"version":"build-2736575974"},"reference-count":52,"publisher":"SAGE Publications","issue":"17-18","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2024,10,11]],"date-time":"2024-10-11T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1728604800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"},{"start":{"date-parts":[[2024,10,11]],"date-time":"2024-10-11T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1728604800000},"content-version":"tdm","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/journals.sagepub.com\/page\/policies\/text-and-data-mining-license"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100004525","name":"ministry of advanced education","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100004525","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":["journals.sagepub.com"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["J Interpers Violence"],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2025,9]]},"abstract":"<jats:p>Working in prisons can be a challenging job, managing a population of incarcerated people while keeping oneself, one\u2019s colleagues, and the people themselves safe. Some corrections officers may expect violence in the workplace, yet being a victim of violence is no trivial experience. In prison, violent incidents are categorized according to the severity of the violence perpetrated. However, we do not know how characteristics of a violent incident may contribute to the severity of violence perpetrated toward corrections staff. To begin to address this gap, we examined characteristics of physical assault incidents in New Zealand prisons between 2016 and 2020, in which the perpetrator of the incident was a male prisoner and the victim was a corrections officer. We examined the prediction of incidents across three levels of severity using individual and environmental characteristics. Perpetrators of serious violence tended to be already segregated from the general population at the time of the assault. We also found that perpetrators of assault against staff were different from the general prison population: prisoners who assaulted staff were more likely to be younger, gang affiliated, and had higher security classifications compared to prisoners who did not assault staff. Research suggests that characteristics of perpetrators can contribute to their risk of perpetrating violence; we found that characteristics of perpetrators (i.e., being segregated) can also contribute to the severity of violence perpetrated. Furthermore, we offer a direct comparison between prisoners who assaulted staff and prisoners who did not, therefore cementing research that prisoners who assaulted staff are different from the rest of the prison population.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1177\/08862605241287802","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2024,10,12]],"date-time":"2024-10-12T00:30:37Z","timestamp":1728693037000},"page":"4273-4298","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1177\/sage-journals-update-policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":3,"title":["Predicting Physical Violence Against Corrections Officers Across Three Levels of Severity Using Individual and Environmental Characteristics"],"prefix":"10.1177","volume":"40","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-5981-6061","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Samantha S.","family":"Taaka","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"The University of Waikato, Hamilton, New Zealand"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Armon","family":"Tamatea","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"The University of Waikato, Hamilton, New Zealand"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-4827-0555","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Devon L. L.","family":"Polaschek","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"The University of Waikato, Hamilton, New Zealand"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"179","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,10,11]]},"reference":[{"key":"e_1_3_5_2_1","author":"Ara Poutama Aotearoa","year":"2022","unstructured":"Ara Poutama Aotearoa. (2022). Annual Report: July 2021\u201330 June 2022. (Department of Corrections: Ara Poutama Aotearoa, report #E.61:).","journal-title":"Annual Report: July 2021\u201330 June 2022"},{"key":"e_1_3_5_3_1","unstructured":"Ara Poutama Aotearoa. (n.d.). Prison operations manual. https:\/\/www.corrections.govt.nz\/resources\/policy_and_legislation\/Prison-Operations-Manual"},{"key":"e_1_3_5_4_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Arbach-Lucioni K. Martinez-Garcia M. Andres-Pueyo A. (2012). Risk factors for violent behavior in prison inmates. Criminal Justice and Behaviour 39 1219\u20131239. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1177\/0093854812445875","DOI":"10.1177\/0093854812445875"},{"key":"e_1_3_5_5_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3390\/ijerph15040601"},{"key":"e_1_3_5_6_1","article-title":"Do overcrowding and turnover cause violence in prison?","volume":"10","author":"Baggio S.","year":"2020","unstructured":"Baggio S., Peigne N., Heller P., Getaz L., Liebrenz M., Wolff H. (2020). Do overcrowding and turnover cause violence in prison? Frontiers in Psychology, 10, 1015.","journal-title":"Frontiers in Psychology"},{"key":"e_1_3_5_7_1","author":"Bakker L.","year":"1999","unstructured":"Bakker L., O\u2019Malley J., Riley D. (1999). Risk of reconviction. Department of Corrections.","journal-title":"Risk of reconviction"},{"key":"e_1_3_5_8_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1177\/0886260512475314"},{"key":"e_1_3_5_9_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Brabyn L. Day A. Grace R. Tamatea A. (2023). Understanding prison violence in Aotearoa New Zealand using machine learning. New Zealand Geographer 79 234\u2013245. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1111\/nzg.12374","DOI":"10.1111\/nzg.12374"},{"key":"e_1_3_5_10_1","unstructured":"Brennan-Tupara N. (2021). \u201cBe feared or live in fear\u201d: A descriptive model of institutional gang violence (Master\u2019s thesis University of Waikato Hamilton New Zealand). Retrieved from https:\/\/researchcommons.waikato.ac.nz\/entities\/publication\/e03cc12a-e920-4211-90a8-6e2a81ce624a"},{"key":"e_1_3_5_11_1","unstructured":"Brettkelly S. (2020). A waiting room for danger \u2013 our remand crisis. Newsroom. Retrieved from https:\/\/newsroom.co.nz\/2020\/06\/25\/a-waiting-room-for-danger-our-remand-crisis\/"},{"key":"e_1_3_5_12_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1071\/AH11043"},{"key":"e_1_3_5_13_1","unstructured":"Christian H. (2018 June 27). Corrections officer describes working in a \u2018pressure cooker\u2019 with NZ\u2019s worst prisoners. Stuff. https:\/\/www.stuff.co.nz\/auckland\/105013474\/corrections-officer-describes-working-in-a-pressure-cooker-with-nzs-worst-prisoners#:~:text=%22It\u2019s%20a%20pressure%20cooker%20right point%20where%20it%20will%20blow.&text=%22All%20my%20fellow%20officers%20and go%20home%20to%20our%20families.%22"},{"key":"e_1_3_5_14_1","unstructured":"Cook C. (2020 September 1). Violence against prison guards appears to be worsening as population decreases. RNZ. https:\/\/www.rnz.co.nz\/news\/national\/424936\/violence-against-prison-guards-appears-to-be-worsening-as-population-decreases"},{"key":"e_1_3_5_15_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Crewe B. (2006). Male prisoners\u2019 orientations toward female officers in an English prison. Punishment & Society 8 395\u2013412. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1177\/1462474506067565","DOI":"10.1177\/1462474506067565"},{"key":"e_1_3_5_16_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Cunningham M. D. Sorensen J. R. (2007). Predictive factors for violent misconduct in close custody. The Prison Journal 87 241\u2013253. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1177\/0032885507303752","DOI":"10.1177\/0032885507303752"},{"key":"e_1_3_5_17_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1177\/1073191104272815"},{"key":"e_1_3_5_18_1","first-page":"175","article-title":"Improving prison safety: Breaking the code of silence","volume":"22","author":"Dennehy K. M.","year":"2006","unstructured":"Dennehy K. M., Nantel K. A. (2006). Improving prison safety: Breaking the code of silence. Journal of Law and Policy, 22, 175\u2013185.","journal-title":"Journal of Law and Policy"},{"key":"e_1_3_5_19_1","volume-title":"Over-representation of M\u0101ori in the criminal justice system: An exploratory report","author":"Department of Corrections","year":"2007","unstructured":"Department of Corrections. (2007). Over-representation of M\u0101ori in the criminal justice system: An exploratory report. Policy, Strategy and Research Group: Department of Corrections."},{"key":"e_1_3_5_20_1","volume-title":"Violence in the workplace, 1993\u201399","author":"Duhart D. T.","year":"2001","unstructured":"Duhart D. T. (2001). Violence in the workplace, 1993\u201399. Bureau of Justice Statistics Special Report."},{"key":"e_1_3_5_21_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ellison J. M. Caudill J. W. (2020). Working on local time: Testing the job-demand-control-support model of stress with jail officers. Journal of Criminal Justice 70 1\u201311. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.jcrimjus.2020.101717","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jcrimjus.2020.101717"},{"key":"e_1_3_5_22_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ellison J. M. Gainey R. (2020). An opportunity model of safety risks among jail officers. Journal of Criminal Justice 66 1\u201312. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.jcrimjus.2019.101632","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jcrimjus.2019.101632"},{"key":"e_1_3_5_23_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3389\/fpsyt.2020.493391"},{"key":"e_1_3_5_24_1","unstructured":"Giannini D. (2021). Assaults on corrections officers increase five-fold AMC now Australia\u2019s most expensive prison. Riotact. https:\/\/the-riotact.com\/assaults-on-corrections-officers-increase-five-fold-amc-now-australias-most-expensive-prison\/433802"},{"key":"e_1_3_5_25_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Gordon J. A. Proulx B. Grant P. H. (2012). Trepidation among the \u201ckeepers\u201d: Gendered perceptions of fear and risk of victimization among corrections officers. American Journal of Criminal Justice 38 245\u2013265. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s12103-012-9167-1","DOI":"10.1007\/s12103-012-9167-1"},{"key":"e_1_3_5_26_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Goulette N. Denney A. S. Crow M. S. Ferdik F. V. (2022). \u201cAnything can happen at any time\u201d: Percevied Causes of Correctional Officer Injuries. Criminal Justice Review 47 17\u201333. https:\/\/doi.org.\/10.1177\/0734016820952521","DOI":"10.1177\/0734016820952521"},{"key":"e_1_3_5_27_1","unstructured":"Hatton E. (2023). Violent remand population blamed for increased handcuff use. Newsroom. Retrieved from https:\/\/newsroom.co.nz\/2023\/09\/08\/violent-remand-population-blamed-for-increased-handcuff-use\/"},{"key":"e_1_3_5_28_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/978-1-4614-1659-3_8"},{"key":"e_1_3_5_29_1","unstructured":"IBM Corp. (2021). IBM SPSS Statistics for Macintosh Version 28.0. Armonk NY: IBM Corp."},{"key":"e_1_3_5_30_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Jaegers L. A. Ghaziri M. E. Katz I. K. Ellison J. M. Vaughn M. G. Cherniack M. G. (2022). Critical incident exposure among custody and noncustody correctional workers: Prevalence and impact of violent exposure to work-related trauma. American Journal of Industrial Medicine 65 500\u2013511. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1002\/ajim.23353","DOI":"10.1002\/ajim.23353"},{"key":"e_1_3_5_31_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1177\/0032885519894658"},{"key":"e_1_3_5_32_1","article-title":"Assessing risk of re-offending: Recalibration of the Department of Corrections\u2019 core risk assessment measure. Practice:","volume":"8","author":"Johnston P.","year":"2021","unstructured":"Johnston P. (2021). Assessing risk of re-offending: Recalibration of the Department of Corrections\u2019 core risk assessment measure. Practice: The New Zealand Corrections Journal, 8.","journal-title":"The New Zealand Corrections Journal"},{"key":"e_1_3_5_33_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1177\/0093854816664923"},{"key":"e_1_3_5_34_1","first-page":"122","article-title":"U.S correctional officers killed or injured on the job","volume":"75","author":"Konda S.","year":"2013","unstructured":"Konda S., Tiesman H., Reichard A., Hartley D. (2013). U.S correctional officers killed or injured on the job. Correct Today, 75, 122\u2013130.","journal-title":"Correct Today"},{"key":"e_1_3_5_35_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lahm K. F. (2009). Inmate Assault on Prison Staff: A multilevel examination of an overlooked form of prison violence. The Prison Journal 89 131\u2013150. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1177\/0032885509334743","DOI":"10.1177\/0032885509334743"},{"key":"e_1_3_5_36_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1177\/0032885509357586"},{"key":"e_1_3_5_37_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1080\/07418829100091021"},{"key":"e_1_3_5_38_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"McNeeley S. (2021). Situational risk factors for inmate-on-staff assaults. The Prison Journal 101 352\u2013373. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1177\/00328855211010478","DOI":"10.1177\/00328855211010478"},{"key":"e_1_3_5_39_1","unstructured":"Ministry of Justice. (2023). Safety in custody statistics England and Wales: Deaths in prison custody to March 2023 assaults and self-harm to December 2022. Gov.UK https:\/\/www.gov.uk\/government\/statistics\/safety-in-custody-quarterly-update-to-december-2022\/safety-in-custody-statistics-england-and-wales-deaths-in-prison-custody-to-march-2023-assaults-and-self-harm-to-december-2022"},{"key":"e_1_3_5_40_1","unstructured":"New Zealand Police Association. (2021). High price of gang life. https:\/\/www.policeassn.org.nz\/news\/high-price-of-gang-life#\/"},{"key":"e_1_3_5_41_1","first-page":"12","article-title":"From the street to the prison, from the prison to the street: Understanding and responding to prison gangs","volume":"3","author":"Pyrooz D. C.","year":"2011","unstructured":"Pyrooz D. C., Decker S. H., Fleisher M. (2011). From the street to the prison, from the prison to the street: Understanding and responding to prison gangs. Journal of Aggression, 3, 12\u201314.","journal-title":"Journal of Aggression"},{"key":"e_1_3_5_42_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Pyrooz D. C. Mitchell M. M. (2020). The use of restrictive housing on gang and non-gang affiliated inmates in U.S. prisons: Findings from a national survey of correctional agencies. Justice Quarterly 37 590\u2013615. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1080\/07418825.2019.1574019","DOI":"10.1080\/07418825.2019.1574019"},{"key":"e_1_3_5_43_1","unstructured":"RNZ. (2022). Court delays: 1 in 5 offenders released on time-served sentences. Retrieved from https:\/\/www.rnz.co.nz\/news\/national\/481325\/court-delays-1-in-5-offenders-released-on-time-served-sentences"},{"key":"e_1_3_5_44_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sorensen J. R. Cihan A. Reidy T. J. (2024). Gang affiliation and prison violence: A comparison of matching analyses. The Journal of Experimental Criminology. Advance online publication. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s11292-024-09619-8","DOI":"10.1007\/s11292-024-09619-8"},{"key":"e_1_3_5_45_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jcrimjus.2011.01.002"},{"key":"e_1_3_5_46_1","author":"Spinaris C. G.","year":"2012","unstructured":"Spinaris C. G., Denhof M. D., Kellaway J. A. (2012). Posttraumatic stress disorder in United States corrections professionals: Prevalence and impact on health and functioning (Desert Waters Research Report). Desert Waters Correctional Outreach.","journal-title":"Posttraumatic stress disorder in United States corrections professionals: Prevalence and impact on health and functioning"},{"issue":"3","key":"e_1_3_5_47_1","first-page":"679","article-title":"Examining the sources of correctional officer legitimacy","volume":"105","author":"Steiner B.","year":"2015","unstructured":"Steiner B., Wooldredge J. (2015). Examining the sources of correctional officer legitimacy. The Journal of Criminal Law & Criminology, 105(3), 679\u2013703.","journal-title":"The Journal of Criminal Law & Criminology"},{"key":"e_1_3_5_48_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Steiner B. Woolredge J. (2017). Individual and environmental influences on prison officer safety. Justice Quarterly 34 324\u2013349. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1080\/07418825.2016.1164883","DOI":"10.1080\/07418825.2016.1164883"},{"key":"e_1_3_5_49_1","volume-title":"Understanding and reducing prison violence: An integrated social control-opportunity perspective","author":"Steiner B.","year":"2020","unstructured":"Steiner B., Woolredge J. (2020). Understanding and reducing prison violence: An integrated social control-opportunity perspective. Routledge."},{"key":"e_1_3_5_50_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.4324\/9781003272458"},{"key":"e_1_3_5_51_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"van Ginneken E. F. J. C. Sutherland A. Molleman T. (2017). An ecological analysis of prison overcrowding and suicide rates in England and Wales 2000-2014. International Journal of Law and Psychiatry 50 76\u201382. https:\/\/dx.doi.org\/10.1016\/j.ijlp.2016.05.005","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijlp.2016.05.005"},{"key":"e_1_3_5_52_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1177\/0093854806296830"},{"key":"e_1_3_5_53_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Worrall J. L. Morris R. G. (2012). Prison gang integration and inmate violence. Journal of Criminal Justice 40(5) 425\u2013432. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.jcrimjus.2012.06.002","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jcrimjus.2012.06.002"}],"container-title":["Journal of Interpersonal Violence"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/journals.sagepub.com\/doi\/pdf\/10.1177\/08862605241287802","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/journals.sagepub.com\/doi\/full-xml\/10.1177\/08862605241287802","content-type":"application\/xml","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/journals.sagepub.com\/doi\/pdf\/10.1177\/08862605241287802","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,29]],"date-time":"2026-04-29T23:18:46Z","timestamp":1777504726000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/journals.sagepub.com\/doi\/10.1177\/08862605241287802"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2024,10,11]]},"references-count":52,"journal-issue":{"issue":"17-18","published-print":{"date-parts":[[2025,9]]}},"alternative-id":["10.1177\/08862605241287802"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1177\/08862605241287802","relation":{},"ISSN":["0886-2605","1552-6518"],"issn-type":[{"value":"0886-2605","type":"print"},{"value":"1552-6518","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2024,10,11]]}}}