{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,4]],"date-time":"2026-05-04T00:37:48Z","timestamp":1777855068179,"version":"3.51.4"},"reference-count":37,"publisher":"SAGE Publications","issue":"23-24","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2024,12,27]],"date-time":"2024-12-27T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1735257600000},"content-version":"tdm","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/journals.sagepub.com\/page\/policies\/text-and-data-mining-license"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["journals.sagepub.com"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["J Interpers Violence"],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2025,12]]},"abstract":"<jats:p>\n                    On August 9, 2014, Michael Brown was shot and killed by police officer Darren Wilson in Ferguson Missouri, sparking protests and civil unrest. Three studies have yielded inconsistent findings regarding the presence of posttraumatic stress symptoms (PTSSs) in the aftermath of the unrest in Ferguson. Additional work is needed to understand how exposure to community-level stressors may correspond with trauma-related outcomes, as well as accounting for knowledge of, and engagement in the events. Posttraumatic cognitions have also not been researched. The present study examined the associations between Ferguson exposure, knowledge of Ferguson events, Black Lives Matter (BLM) membership, PTSSs, and posttraumatic cognitions among 514 undergraduate students from a university near Ferguson (\n                    <jats:italic toggle=\"yes\">M<\/jats:italic>\n                    <jats:sub>age<\/jats:sub>\n                    \u2009=\u200923.89,\n                    <jats:italic toggle=\"yes\">SD<\/jats:italic>\n                    \u2009=\u20096.94; 79.2% female; 57.4% White, 29.4% Black). The four posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) symptom clusters and posttraumatic cognitions regarding the world were also investigated. Women, those with greater prior trauma exposure, and those with greater knowledge of Ferguson events reported higher PTSS. Greater knowledge of Ferguson events evinced ties to intrusion symptoms; however, Ferguson knowledge or direct exposure and BLM membership were consistently not associated with the other three symptom clusters. Moreover, these variables were not related to negative posttraumatic cognitions. Sex and cumulative trauma demonstrated links to all of the dependent variables. Prior trauma history may be key in understanding reactions to collective trauma, and knowledge of these events may play a smaller, but important, role.\n                  <\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1177\/08862605241307226","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2024,12,27]],"date-time":"2024-12-27T04:36:14Z","timestamp":1735274174000},"page":"5685-5706","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1177\/sage-journals-update-policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Posttraumatic Stress Symptoms and Posttraumatic Cognitions in the Wake of the Death of Michael Brown"],"prefix":"10.1177","volume":"40","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-8662-3959","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Rachel A.","family":"Wamser","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Psychological Sciences, University of Missouri\u2014St. Louis, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8427-0910","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Julia","family":"Richardson","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Psychological Sciences, University of Missouri\u2014St. Louis, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"179","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,12,27]]},"reference":[{"key":"e_1_3_3_2_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Alegr\u00eda M. Fortuna L. R. Lin J. Y. Norris F. H. Gao S. Takeuchi D. T. Jackson J. S. Shrout P. E. Valentine A. (2013). Prevalence risk and correlates of posttraumatic stress disorder across ethnic and racial minority groups in the United States. Medical Care 51(12) 1114\u20131123. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1097\/MLR.0000000000000007","DOI":"10.1097\/MLR.0000000000000007"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_3_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Anderson K. F. (2013). Diagnosing discrimination: Stress from perceived racism and the mental and physical health effects. Sociological Inquiry 83(1) 55\u201381. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1111\/j.1475-682X.2012.00433.x","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1475-682X.2012.00433.x"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_4_1","unstructured":"AP News. (2022 October 23). Timeline of events since George Floyd\u2019s arrest and murder. AP News. https:\/\/apnews.com\/article\/death-of-george-floyd-minneapolis-police-reform-d109eb0d3094119ddbcb560676467f19"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_5_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Berntsen D. Rubin D. C. (2006). The centrality of event scale: A measure of integrating a trauma into one\u2019s identity and its relation to post-traumatic stress disorder symptoms. Behaviour Research and Therapy 44(2) 219\u2013231. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.brat.2005.01.009","DOI":"10.1016\/j.brat.2005.01.009"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_6_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Breslau J. Aguilar-Gaxiola S. Kendler K. S. Su M. Williams D. Kessler R. C. (2006). Specifying race-ethnic differences in risk for psychiatric disorder in a USA national sample. Psychological Medicine 36(1) 57\u201368. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1017\/S0033291705006161","DOI":"10.1017\/S0033291705006161"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_7_1","unstructured":"Buchanan L. Ford F. Lai K. K. R. Park H. Parlapiano A. Tse A. Wallace T. Watkins D. Yourish K. (2014 August 13).What Happened in Ferguson? \u2013 The New York Times. https:\/\/www.nytimes.com\/interactive\/2014\/08\/13\/us\/ferguson-missouri-town-under-siege-after-police-shooting.html?mtrref=www.google.com&gwh=D5203929DC35CCB530A092FE1513ABD8&gwt=pay&assetType=PAYWALL"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_8_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Carter R. T. (2007). Racism and psychological and emotional injury: Recognizing and assessing race-based traumatic stress. The Counseling Psychologist 35(1) 13\u2013105. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1177\/0011000006292033","DOI":"10.1177\/0011000006292033"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_9_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Carter R. T. Lau M. Y. Johnson V. Kirkinis K. (2017). Racial discrimination and health outcomes among racial\/ethnic minorities: A meta-analytic review. Journal of Multicultural Counseling and Development 45(4) 232\u2013259. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1002\/jmcd.12076","DOI":"10.1002\/jmcd.12076"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_10_1","unstructured":"Chokshi N. (2014 August 14). Militarized police in Ferguson unsettles some; Pentagon gives cities equipment. The Washington Post. https:\/\/www.washingtonpost.com\/politics\/militarized-police-in-ferguson-unsettles-some-pentagon-gives-cities-equipment\/2014\/08\/14\/4651f670-2401-11e4-86ca-6f03cbd15c1a_story.html"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_11_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Comer J. S. Dantowitz A. Chou T. Edson A. L. Elkins R. M. Kerns C. Brown B. Green J. G. (2014). Adjustment among area youth after the Boston Marathon bombing and subsequent manhunt. Pediatrics 134(1) 7\u201314. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1542\/peds.2013-4115","DOI":"10.1542\/peds.2013-4115"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_12_1","unstructured":"DOJ. (2020). Facts and Statistics. Available at: https:\/\/www.justice.gov\/hatecrimes\/hate-crime-statistics"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_13_1","unstructured":"Davey M. Bosman J. (2014 November 24). Protests flare after Ferguson police officer is not indicted. The New York Times. https:\/\/www.nytimes.com\/2014\/11\/25\/us\/ferguson-darren-wilson-shooting-michael-brown-grand-jury.html"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_14_1","unstructured":"Edwards G. S. Rushin S. (2018). The effect of President Trump\u2019s election on hate crimes. Available at: https:\/\/dx.doi.org\/10.2139\/ssrn.3102652"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_15_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ehlers A. Clark D. M. (2000). A cognitive model of posttraumatic stress disorder. Behaviour Research and Therapy 38(4) 319\u2013345. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/S0005-7967(99)00123-0","DOI":"10.1016\/S0005-7967(99)00123-0"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_16_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Foa E. B. Ehlers A. Clark D. M. Tolin D. F. Orsillo S. M. (1999). The Posttraumatic Cognitions Inventory (PTCI): Development and validation. Psychological Assessment 11(3) 303\u2013314. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1037\/1040-3590.11.3.303","DOI":"10.1037\/\/1040-3590.11.3.303"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_17_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"First J. M. Danforth L. Frisby C. M. Warner B. R. Ferguson M. W. Houston J. B. (2020). Posttraumatic stress related to the killing of Michael Brown and resulting civil unrest in Ferguson Missouri: Roles of protest engagement media use race and resilience. Journal of the Society for Social Work and Research 11(3) 369\u2013391. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1086\/711162","DOI":"10.1086\/711162"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_18_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Galea S. Ahern J. Resnick H. Kilpatrick D. Bucuvalas M. Gold J. Vlahov D. (2002). Psychological sequelae of the September 11 terrorist attacks in New York City. New England Journal of Medicine 346(13) 982\u2013987. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1056\/NEJMsa013404","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMsa013404"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_19_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Gallagher R. J. Reagan A. J. Danforth C. M. Dodds P. S. (2018). Divergent discourse between protests and counter-protests: #BlackLivesMatter and #AllLivesMatter. PLoS One 13(4) e0195644. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1371\/journal.pone.0195644","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0195644"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_20_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Galovski T. E. Peterson Z. D. Beagley M. C. Strasshofer D. R. Held P. Fletcher T. D. (2016). Exposure to violence during Ferguson protests: Mental health effects for law enforcement and community members: Effects of exposure to violence in Ferguson. Journal of Traumatic Stress 29(4) 283\u2013292. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1002\/jts.22105","DOI":"10.1002\/jts.22105"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_21_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Galovski T. E. Peterson Z. D. Fox-Galalis A. (2018). Trajectories of posttraumatic stress and depression in police and community members following the violence during civil unrest in Ferguson Missouri. American Journal of Community Psychology 62(3\u20134) 433\u2013448. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1002\/ajcp.12273","DOI":"10.1002\/ajcp.12273"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_22_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hart A. R. Lavner J. A. Carter S. E. Beach S. R. H. (2021). Racial discrimination depressive symptoms and sleep problems among Blacks in the rural South. Cultural Diversity & Ethnic Minority Psychology 27(1) 123\u2013134. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1037\/cdp0000365","DOI":"10.1037\/cdp0000365"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_23_1","unstructured":"Hill E. Tiefenth\u00e4ler A. Triebert C. Jordan D. Willis H. Stein R. (2020 June 1). How George Floyd was killed in police custody. The New York Times. https:\/\/www.nytimes.com\/2020\/05\/31\/us\/george-floyd-investigation.html"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_24_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hirschberger G. (2018). Collective trauma and the social construction of meaning. Frontiers in Psychology 9 1441. https:\/\/www.frontiersin.org\/articles\/10.3389\/fpsyg.2018.01441","DOI":"10.3389\/fpsyg.2018.01441"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_25_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Holman E. A. Garfin D. R. Lubens P. Silver R. C. (2020). Media exposure to collective trauma mental health and functioning: Does it matter what you see? Clinical Psychological Science 8(1) 111\u2013124. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1177\/2167702619858300","DOI":"10.1177\/2167702619858300"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_26_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Jakob J. M. D. Lamp K. Rauch S. A. M. Smith E. R. Buchholz K. R. (2017). The impact of trauma type or number of traumatic events on PTSD diagnosis and symptom severity in treatment seeking veterans. Journal of Nervous & Mental Disease 205(2) 83\u201386. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1097\/NMD.0000000000000581","DOI":"10.1097\/NMD.0000000000000581"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_27_1","first-page":"1","article-title":"Report to the nation: Hate crimes rise in US cities and counties in time of division and foreign interference","author":"Levin B.","year":"2018","unstructured":"Levin B., Reitzel J. D. (2018). Report to the nation: Hate crimes rise in US cities and counties in time of division and foreign interference. Center for the Study of Hate and Extremism, 1\u201351.","journal-title":"Center for the Study of Hate and Extremism"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_28_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Makadia R. Sabin-Farrell R. Turpin G. (2017). Indirect exposure to client trauma and the impact on trainee clinical psychologists: Secondary traumatic stress or vicarious traumatization? Clinical Psychology & Psychotherapy 24(5) 1059\u20131068. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1002\/cpp.2068","DOI":"10.1002\/cpp.2068"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_29_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ni M. Y. Kim Y. McDowell I. Wong S. Qiu H. Wong I. O. Galea S. Leung G. M. (2020). Mental health during and after protests riots and revolutions: A systematic review. The Australian and New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry 54(3) 232\u2013243. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1177\/0004867419899165","DOI":"10.1177\/0004867419899165"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_30_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ozer E. J. Best S. R. Lipsey T. L. Weiss D. S. (2003). Predictors of posttraumatic stress disorder and symptoms in adults: A meta-analysis. Psychological Bulletin 129(1) 52\u201373. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1037\/0033-2909.129.1.52","DOI":"10.1037\/\/0033-2909.129.1.52"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_31_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Paradies Y. Ben J. Denson N. Elias A. Priest N. Pieterse A. Gupta A. Kelaher M. Gee G. (2015). Racism as a determinant of health: A systematic review and meta-analysis. PLoS One 10(9) e0138511. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1371\/journal.pone.0138511","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0138511"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_32_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/josi.12247"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_33_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Roberts A. L. Gilman S. E. Breslau J. Breslau N. Koenen K. C. (2011). Race\/ethnic differences in exposure to traumatic events development of post-traumatic stress disorder and treatment-seeking for post-traumatic stress disorder in the United States. Psychological Medicine 41(1) 71\u201383. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1017\/S0033291710000401","DOI":"10.1017\/S0033291710000401"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_34_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Schwartz R. M. Liu B. Lieberman-Cribbin W. Taioli E. (2017). Displacement and mental health after natural disasters. The Lancet Planetary Health 1(8) e314. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/S2542-5196(17)30138-9","DOI":"10.1016\/S2542-5196(17)30138-9"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_35_1","unstructured":"United States Department of Justice. (2015). Department of justice report regarding the criminal investigation into the shooting death of Michael Brown by Ferguson Missouri police officer Darren Wilson (p. 86). https:\/\/www.justice.gov\/sites\/default\/files\/opa\/press-releases\/attachments\/2015\/03\/04\/doj_report_on_shooting_of_michael_brown_1.pdf"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_36_1","volume-title":"The Life Events Checklist for DSM-5 (LEC-5) \u2013 Standard","author":"Weathers F. W.","year":"2013","unstructured":"Weathers F. W., Blake D. D., Schnurr P. P., Kaloupek D. G., Marx B. P., Keane T. M. (2013). The Life Events Checklist for DSM-5 (LEC-5) \u2013 Standard. Boston, MA: National Center for PTSD."},{"key":"e_1_3_3_37_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1037\/pas0000260"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_38_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s40501-021-00250-2"}],"container-title":["Journal of Interpersonal Violence"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/journals.sagepub.com\/doi\/pdf\/10.1177\/08862605241307226","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/journals.sagepub.com\/doi\/full-xml\/10.1177\/08862605241307226","content-type":"application\/xml","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/journals.sagepub.com\/doi\/pdf\/10.1177\/08862605241307226","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,29]],"date-time":"2026-04-29T23:18:56Z","timestamp":1777504736000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/journals.sagepub.com\/doi\/10.1177\/08862605241307226"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2024,12,27]]},"references-count":37,"journal-issue":{"issue":"23-24","published-print":{"date-parts":[[2025,12]]}},"alternative-id":["10.1177\/08862605241307226"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1177\/08862605241307226","relation":{},"ISSN":["0886-2605","1552-6518"],"issn-type":[{"value":"0886-2605","type":"print"},{"value":"1552-6518","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2024,12,27]]}}}