{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,20]],"date-time":"2026-10-20T03:15:18Z","timestamp":1792466118974,"version":"4.5.0"},"reference-count":64,"publisher":"SAGE Publications","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,6]],"date-time":"2026-03-06T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1772755200000},"content-version":"tdm","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/journals.sagepub.com\/page\/policies\/text-and-data-mining-license"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["journals.sagepub.com"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["J Interpers Violence"],"abstract":"<jats:p>\n                    During sexual assault (SA), victims commonly experience tonic immobility (TI), a state of involuntary paralysis and motor inhibition that occurs in response to extreme stress. TI often includes being unable to move or vocalize during the event (e.g., freezing, being unable to say \u201cno\u201d). Despite its efficacy as an evolutionary survival mechanism that may serve to prevent fatal injury, SA survivors who experienced TI are often blamed for the assault due to the false belief that lack of resistance during assault equates to consent. Self-blame and victim-blame by others are associated with more severe symptoms of posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD). Prior research has not yet examined whether self-blame and victim-blame explain more severe PTSD among SA survivors who experienced TI. The current study tested the hypothesis that self-blame and victim-blame would mediate the relationship between TI and PTSD. All students from a public liberal arts college were asked to complete an online survey if they had a history of unwanted sexual contact. Among participants who completed all survey measures (\n                    <jats:italic toggle=\"yes\">N<\/jats:italic>\n                    \u2009=\u200976), self-blame, but not victim-blame, mediated a link between TI and PTSD. This study highlights the need for interventions, such as cognitive processing therapy (CPT), that address cognitive distortions, including the survivor\u2019s belief that they should have done more to stop the assault. Thus, CPT may be a particularly promising therapy for SA survivors who blame themselves for the assault because of their experience of TI.\n                  <\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1177\/08862605261419494","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,11]],"date-time":"2026-03-11T15:59:50Z","timestamp":1773244790000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1177\/sage-journals-update-policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":2,"title":["Self-Blame Mediates the Link Between Tonic Immobility Experienced During Campus Sexual Assault and PTSD Symptoms"],"prefix":"10.1177","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0008-0141-2951","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Chloe","family":"Yadav","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"The College of New Jersey, Ewing, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-1059-3634","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Joanna","family":"Herres","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"The College of New Jersey, Ewing, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"179","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,6]]},"reference":[{"key":"e_1_3_3_2_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1176\/appi.books.9780890425596"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_3_1","author":"American Psychiatric Association [APA]","year":"2023","unstructured":"American Psychiatric Association [APA]. (2023). Stress effects on the body.","journal-title":"Stress effects on the body"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_4_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bachman R. Saltzman L. E. Thompson M. P. Carmody D. C. (2002). Disentangling the effects of self-protective behaviors on the risk of injury in assaults against women. Journal of Quantitative Criminology 18 135\u2013157. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1023\/A:1015254631767","DOI":"10.1023\/A:1015254631767"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_5_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bedard-Gilligan M. Zoellner L. A. (2012). Dissociation and memory fragmentation in post-traumatic stress disorder: An evaluation of the dissociative encoding hypothesis. Memory 20(3) 277\u2013299. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1080\/09658211.2012.655747","DOI":"10.1080\/09658211.2012.655747"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_6_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bell S. C. Wolff L. A. Skolnick M. (2023). Female victims of acquaintance rape in College: Incidence and effects of encounters with perpetrators. Journal of American College Health 71 535\u2013542. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1080\/07448481.2021.1898404","DOI":"10.1080\/07448481.2021.1898404"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_7_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bhuptani P. H. Messman T. L. (2021). Self-compassion and shame among rape survivors. Journal of Interpersonal Violence 37(17\u201318) NP16575\u2013NP16595. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1177\/08862605211021994","DOI":"10.1177\/08862605211021994"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_8_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bhuptani P. H. Messman T. L. (2023). Role of blame and rape-related shame in distress among rape victims. Psychological Trauma: Theory Research Practice and Policy 15(4) 557\u2013566. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1037\/tra0001132","DOI":"10.1037\/tra0001132"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_9_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Birmes P. Brunet A. Carreras D. Ducass\u00e9 J. L. Charlet J. P. Lauque D. Sztulman H. Schmitt L. (2003). The predictive power of peritraumatic dissociation and acute stress symptoms for posttraumatic stress symptoms: A three-month prospective study. American Journal of Psychiatry 160(7) 1337\u20131339. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1176\/appi.ajp.160.7.1337","DOI":"10.1176\/appi.ajp.160.7.1337"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_10_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bovin M. J. Dodson T. S. Smith B. N. Gregor K. Marx B. P. Pineles S. L. (2014). Does guilt mediate the association between tonic immobility and posttraumatic stress disorder symptoms in female trauma survivors? Journal of Traumatic Stress 27 721\u2013724. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1002\/jts.21963.","DOI":"10.1002\/jts.21963"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_11_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bovin M. J. Marx B. P. Weathers F. W. Gallagher M. W. Rodriguez P. Schnurr P. P. Keane T. M. (2016). Psychometric properties of the PTSD Checklist for Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders\u2013Fifth Edition (PCL-5) in veterans. Psychological Assessment 28(11) 1379\u20131391. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1037\/pas0000254","DOI":"10.1037\/pas0000254"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_12_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Burgin R. (2019). Persistent narratives of force and resistance: Affirmative consent as law reform. The British Journal of Criminology 59(2) 296\u2013314. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1093\/bjc\/azy043","DOI":"10.1093\/bjc\/azy043"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_13_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Campbell R. Fehler-Cabral G. Pierce S. J. Sharma D. B. Shaw J. Horsford S. Feeney H. (2021). Changing the criminal justice system response to Sexual Assault: An empirical study of a Participatory Action Research Project. American Journal of Community Psychology 67 166\u2013178. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1002\/ajcp.12428","DOI":"10.1002\/ajcp.12428"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_14_1","article-title":"Report on the AAU Campus Climate Survey on sexual assault and sexual misconduct","author":"Cantor D.","year":"2015","unstructured":"Cantor D., Fisher B., Chibnall S., Townsend R., Lee H., Bruce C., Thomas G. (2015). Report on the AAU Campus Climate Survey on sexual assault and sexual misconduct. Association of American Universities.","journal-title":"Association of American Universities"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_15_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Carli G. Farabollini F. (2022). Chapter 12\u2014Tonic immobility as a survival adaptive response and as a recovery mechanism. Progress in Brain Research 271(1) 305\u2013329. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/bs.pbr.2022.02.012","DOI":"10.1016\/bs.pbr.2022.02.012"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_16_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Coimbra B. M. Hoeboer C. M. van Zuiden M. Williamson R. E. D\u2019Elia A. T. Mello A. F. Mello M. F. Olff M. (2023). The relationship between tonic immobility and the development severity and course of posttraumatic stress disorder: Systematic and meta-analytic literature review. Journal of Anxiety Disorders 97 102730. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.janxdis.2023.102730","DOI":"10.1016\/j.janxdis.2023.102730"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_17_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Dalgleish T. (2004). Cognitive approaches to posttraumatic stress disorder: The evolution of multirepresentational theorizing. Psychological Bulletin 130(2) 228\u2013260. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1037\/0033-2909.130.2.228","DOI":"10.1037\/0033-2909.130.2.228"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_18_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"de la Torre Laso J. (2023). The reality of tonic Immobility in victims of sexual violence: \u201cI was paralyzed I couldn\u2019t move.\u201d Trauma Violence & Abuse 25(2) 1630\u20131637. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1177\/15248380231191","DOI":"10.1177\/15248380231191232"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_19_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"de la Torre Laso J. Rodr\u00edguez-D\u00edaz J. M. (2022). The relationship between attribution of blame and the perception of resistance in relation to victims of sexual violence. Frontiers in Psychology 13 868793. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/fpsyg.2022.868793","DOI":"10.3389\/fpsyg.2022.868793"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_20_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"deMello R. A. F. Coimbra B. M. Pedro B. D. M. Benvenutti I. M. Yeh M. S. L. Mello A. F. Mello M. F. Poyares D. R. (2022). Peri-traumatic sissociation and tonic immobility as severity predictors of posttraumatic stress disorder after rape. Journal of Interpersonal Violence 38(3\u20134) 4240\u20134266. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1177\/08862605221114151","DOI":"10.1177\/08862605221114151"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_21_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Dworkin E. R. Jaffe A. E. Bedard-Gilligan M. Fitzpatrick S. (2021). PTSD in the year following sexual assault: A meta-analysis of prospective studies. Trauma Violence & Abuse 24 497\u2013514. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1177\/15248380211032213","DOI":"10.1177\/15248380211032213"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_22_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/S0005-7967(99)00123-0"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_23_1","volume-title":"The tonic immobility scale\u2014Adult form","author":"Forsyth J. P.","year":"2000","unstructured":"Forsyth J. P., Marx B., Fus\u00e9 T. M. K, Heidt J., Gallup G. G. (2000). The tonic immobility scale\u2014Adult form. Unpublished scale, Department of Psychology, SUNY."},{"key":"e_1_3_3_24_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Frazier P. A. (2003). Perceived control and distress following sexual assault: A longitudinal test of a new model. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 84 1257\u20131269. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1037\/0022-3514.84.6.1257","DOI":"10.1037\/0022-3514.84.6.1257"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_25_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Fritz M. S. Mackinnon D. P. (2007). Required sample size to detect the mediated effect. Psychological Science 18(3) 233\u2013239. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1111\/j.1467-9280.2007.01882.x","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1467-9280.2007.01882.x"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_26_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Gbahabo D. D. Duma S. E. (2021). \u201cI just became like a log of wood . . . I was paralyzed all over my body\u201d: Women\u2019s lived experiences of tonic immobility following rape. Heliyon 7(7) e07471. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.heliyon.2021.e07471","DOI":"10.1016\/j.heliyon.2021.e07471"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_27_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hagenaars M. (2016). Tonic immobility and PTSD in a large community sample. Journal of Experimental Psychopathology 72(2) 246\u2013260. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.5127\/jep.051915","DOI":"10.5127\/jep.051915"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_28_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hamrick L. A. Owens G. P. (2018). Exploring the mediating role of self-blame and coping in the relationships between self-compassion and distress in females following sexual assault. Journal of Clinical Psychology 75(4) 766\u2013779. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1002\/jclp.22730","DOI":"10.1002\/jclp.22730"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_29_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1177\/0886260512445379"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_30_1","volume-title":"Introduction to mediation, moderation, and conditional process analysis: A regression-based approach","author":"Hayes A. F.","year":"2017","unstructured":"Hayes A. F. (2017). Introduction to mediation, moderation, and conditional process analysis: A regression-based approach. Guilford Publications."},{"key":"e_1_3_3_31_1","volume-title":"Counterfactual\/potential outcomes \u201ccausal mediation analysis\u201d with treatment by mediator interaction using PROCESS","author":"Hayes A. F.","year":"2022","unstructured":"Hayes A. F. (2022). Counterfactual\/potential outcomes \u201ccausal mediation analysis\u201d with treatment by mediator interaction using PROCESS. Canadian Centre for Research Analysis and Methods Technical Report."},{"key":"e_1_3_3_32_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Humphreys K. L. Sauder C. L. Martin E. K. Marx B. P. (2010). Tonic immobility in childhood sexual abuse survivors and its relationship to posttraumatic stress symptomatology. Journal of Interpersonal Violence 25(2) 358\u2013373. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1177\/0886260509334412","DOI":"10.1177\/0886260509334412"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_33_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Johnson H. (2017). Why doesn\u2019t she just report it? Apprehensions and contradictions for women who report sexual violence to the police. Canadian Journal of Women and the Law 29(1) 36\u201359. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3138\/cjwl.29.1.36","DOI":"10.3138\/cjwl.29.1.36"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_34_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Jones J. S. Alexander C. Wynn B. N. Rossman L. Dunnuck C. (2009). Why women don\u2019t report sexual assault to the police: The influence of psychosocial variables and traumatic injury. The Journal of Emergency Medicine 36(4) 417\u2013424. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.jemermed.2007.10.077","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jemermed.2007.10.077"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_35_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kaysen D. Morris M. K. Rizvi S. L. Resick P. A. (2005). Peritraumatic responses and their relationship to perceptions of threat in female crime victims. Violence Against Women 11(12) 1515\u20131535. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1177\/1077801205280931","DOI":"10.1177\/1077801205280931"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_36_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kearney D. J. Malte C. A. McManus C. Martinez M. E. Felleman B. Simpson T. L. (2013). Loving-kindness meditation for posttraumatic stress disorder: a pilot study. Journal of Traumatic Stress 26(4) 426\u2013434. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1002\/jts.21832","DOI":"10.1002\/jts.21832"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_37_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kline N. K. Berke D. S. Rhodes C. A. Steenkamp M. M. Litz B. T. (2021). Self-blame and PTSD following sexual assault: A longitudinal analysis. Journal of Interpersonal Violence 36(5\u20136) NP3153\u2013NP3168. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1177\/0886260518770652","DOI":"10.1177\/0886260518770652"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_38_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1471-6402.2007.00385.x"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_39_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lee J. Shin J. Chae S. Chun J. Choi J. W. Lee J. Y. Park T. W. Kim K. M. Kim K. Kim J. W. (2023). The factors affecting longitudinal course of posttraumatic stress disorder symptoms in sexual assault victims. Psychiatry Investigation 20(11) 1061. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.30773\/pi.2023.0077","DOI":"10.30773\/pi.2023.0077"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_40_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lorenz K. Kirkner A. Ullman S. E. (2019). A qualitative study of sexual assault survivors\u2019 post-assault legal system experiences. Journal of Trauma & Dissociation 20(3) 263\u2013287. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1080\/15299732.2019.1592643","DOI":"10.1080\/15299732.2019.1592643"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_41_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Marx B. P. Forsyth J. P. Lexington J. M. (2008). Tonic immobility as an evolved predator defense: Implications for sexual assault survivors. Clinical Psychology: Science and Practice 15 74\u201390. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1111\/j.1468-2850.2008.00112.x","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1468-2850.2008.00112.x"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_42_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Miles L. W. Valentine J. L. Mabey L. J. Hopkins E. S. Stodtmeister P. J. Rockwood R. B. Moxley A. N. H. (2024). A systematic review of evidence-based treatments for adolescent and adult sexual assault victims. Journal of the American Psychiatric Nurses Association 30(3) 480\u2013502. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1177\/10783903231216138","DOI":"10.1177\/10783903231216138"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_43_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"M\u00f6ller A. S\u00f6ndergaard H. P. Helstr\u00f6m L. (2017). Tonic immobility during sexual assault\u2014A common reaction predicting post-traumatic stress disorder and severe depression. Acta Obstetricia et Gynecologica Scandinavica 8 932\u2013938. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1111\/aogs.13174","DOI":"10.1111\/aogs.13174"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_44_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Morris J. M. Quevillon R. P. (2021). Social reactions to sexual assault disclosure: The role of posttraumatic cognitions. Journal of Interpersonal Violence 36(9\u201310) NP5466\u2013NP5475. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1177\/0886260518801940","DOI":"10.1177\/0886260518801940"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_45_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"O\u2019Doherty L. Whelan M. Carter G. J. Brown K. Tarzia L. Hegarty K. Feder G. Brown S. J. (2023). Psychosocial interventions for survivors of rape and sexual assault experienced during adulthood. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews 10 CD013456. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1002\/14651858.CD013456.pub2","DOI":"10.1002\/14651858.CD013456.pub2"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_46_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"O\u2019Neal E. N. (2019). \u201cVictim is Not Credible\u201d: The influence of rape culture on police perceptions of sexual assault complainants. Justice Quarterly 36(1) 127\u2013160. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1080\/07418825.2017.1406977","DOI":"10.1080\/07418825.2017.1406977"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_47_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"O\u2019Neill M. L. Kerig P. K. (2000). Attributions of self-blame and perceived control as moderators of adjustment in battered women. Journal of Interpersonal Violence 15(10) 1036\u20131049. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1177\/0886260000150100","DOI":"10.1177\/088626000015010002"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_48_1","unstructured":"Rape Abuse & Incest National Network [RAINN]. (2023). Sexual Assault. https:\/\/www.rainn.org\/articles\/effects-sexual-violence"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_49_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Relyea M. Ullman S. E. (2015). Unsupported or turned against: Understanding how two types of negative social reactions to sexual assault relate to postassault outcomes. Psychology of Women Quarterly 39(1) 37\u201352. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1177\/0361684313512610","DOI":"10.1177\/0361684313512610"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_50_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1037\/0022-006X.70.4.867"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_51_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Rusinko H. M. Bradley A. R. Miller J. (2010). Assertiveness and attributions of blame toward victims of Sexual Assault. Journal of Aggression Maltreatment & Trauma 19(4) 357\u2013371. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1080\/10926771003788961","DOI":"10.1080\/10926771003788961"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_52_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Salim S. R. Bhuptani P. H. Eschelman L. R. LaPlena N. M. Messman T. L. (2023). Trauma-related shame mediates the associations between self-blame bisexual minority stress and rape-related PTSD symptoms. Journal of Interpersonal Violence 38(17\u201318) 10259\u201310281. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1177\/08862605231172487","DOI":"10.1177\/08862605231172487"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_53_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Schumm J. A. Dickstein B. D. Walter K. H. Owens G. O. Chard K. M. (2015). Changes in posttraumatic cognitions predict changes in posttraumatic stress disorder symptoms during cognitive processing therapy. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology 83(6) 1161\u20131166. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1037\/ccp0000040","DOI":"10.1037\/ccp0000040"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_54_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1177\/08862605221127211"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_55_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1177\/1077801214526050"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_56_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Tipps M. E. Raybuck J. D. Lattal K. M. (2014). Substance abuse memory and post-traumatic stress disorder. Neurobiology of Learning and Memory 112 87\u2013100. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.nlm.2013.12.002","DOI":"10.1016\/j.nlm.2013.12.002"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_57_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ullman S. E. Najdowski C. J. (2011). Prospective changes in attributions of self-blame and social reactions to women\u2019s disclosures of adult sexual assault. Journal of Interpersonal Violence 26(10) 1934\u20131962. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1177\/0886260510372940","DOI":"10.1177\/0886260510372940"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_58_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1177\/0886260514564069"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_59_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ullman S. E. Peter-Hagene L. Relyea M. (2014). Coping emotion regulation and self-blame as mediators of sexual abuse and psychological symptoms in adult sexual assault. Journal of Child Sexual Abuse 23(1):74\u201393. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1080\/10538712.2014.864747","DOI":"10.1080\/10538712.2014.864747"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_60_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ullman S. E. Relyea M. Sigurvinsdottir R. Bennett S. (2017). A short measure of social reactions to sexual assault: The social reactions questionnaire-shortened. Violence and Victims 32(6) 1096\u20131115. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1891\/0886-6708.VV-D-16-00066","DOI":"10.1891\/0886-6708.VV-D-16-00066"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_61_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Volchan E. Souza G. G. Franklin C. M. Norte C. E. Rocha-Rego V. Oliveira J. M. David I. A. Mendlowicz M. V. Coutinho E. S. Fiszman A. Berger W. Marques-Portella C. Figueira I. (2011). Is there tonic immobility in humans? Biological evidence from victims of traumatic stress. Biological Psychology 88(1) 13\u201319. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.biopsycho.2011.06.002","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biopsycho.2011.06.002"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_62_1","article-title":"The PTSD Checklist for","author":"Weathers F. W.","year":"2013","unstructured":"Weathers F. W., Litz B. T., Keane T. M., Palmieri P. A., Marx B. P., Schnurr P. P. (2013). The PTSD Checklist for DSM-5 (PCL-5).","journal-title":"(PCL-5)"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_63_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wilson L. C. Farley A. Horton S. F. (2022). The impact of victim blaming and locus of control on mental health outcomes among female sexual assault survivors. Violence Against Women 28 15\u201316. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1177\/107780122210883","DOI":"10.1177\/10778012221088304"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_64_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wong J. Balemba S. (2018). Resisting during sexual assault: A meta-analysis of the effects on injury. Aggression and Violent Behavior 28 1\u201311. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.avb.2016.03.010","DOI":"10.1016\/j.avb.2016.03.010"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_65_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Young K. Chessell Z. J. Chisholm A. Brady F. Akbar S. Vann M. Rouf K. Dixon L. (2021). A cognitive behavioural therapy (CBT) approach for working with strong feelings of guilt after traumatic events. The Cognitive Behaviour Therapist 14 Article e26. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1017\/S1754470X21000192","DOI":"10.1017\/S1754470X21000192"}],"container-title":["Journal of Interpersonal Violence"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/journals.sagepub.com\/doi\/pdf\/10.1177\/08862605261419494","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/journals.sagepub.com\/doi\/full-xml\/10.1177\/08862605261419494","content-type":"application\/xml","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/journals.sagepub.com\/doi\/pdf\/10.1177\/08862605261419494","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,19]],"date-time":"2026-05-19T10:12:12Z","timestamp":1779185532000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/journals.sagepub.com\/doi\/10.1177\/08862605261419494"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,6]]},"references-count":64,"alternative-id":["10.1177\/08862605261419494"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1177\/08862605261419494","relation":{},"ISSN":["0886-2605","1552-6518"],"issn-type":[{"value":"0886-2605","type":"print"},{"value":"1552-6518","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,6]]},"article-number":"08862605261419494"}}