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The aim was to explore whether the CTS-2 allows for unbiased comparisons of IPV victimization across samples of IPV victims in Spain and Norway. Using multigroup confirmatory factor analysis (MG-CFA), measurement invariance was examined in a Spanish sample of 333 female IPV victims and a Norwegian sample of 154 female IPV victims. Configural, metric, and scalar invariance were assessed, and item-level analyses were conducted to identify sources of bias. Results demonstrated configural invariance, indicating that both samples adhered to the same factorial structure. However, metric invariance was not achieved due to two biased items. Item 22, from the Psychological Aggression subscale, showed cultural differences in wording and interpretation, while item 53, from the Injury subscale, exhibited statistical skewness. Adjusting these items resulted in partial metric invariance, allowing cautious mean comparisons. This study underscores the challenges of achieving full measurement invariance in cross-cultural contexts and challenges the hypothesized Nordic paradox. While the CTS-2 remains a valid tool, certain subscales, particularly Psychological Aggression, require careful adaptation to account for cultural differences. Furthermore, Spanish participants reported higher levels of most IPV subtypes. Future research should adopt multilevel approaches to address systemic and individual factors affecting IPV. Practitioners should also incorporate cultural nuances into the design of interventions to ensure culturally sensitive IPV assessment and treatment.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1177\/08862605261439544","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,14]],"date-time":"2026-05-14T05:55:53Z","timestamp":1778738153000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1177\/sage-journals-update-policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Cross-Cultural Validity of the CTS-2: Examining Measurement Invariance in IPV Victimization Across Norwegian and Spanish Samples"],"prefix":"10.1177","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-0156-8653","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Ana","family":"Bellot Valenzuela","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Autonomous University of Madrid, Spain"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-9785-8174","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Elisabeth Christie","family":"\u00d8rke","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Stavanger University Hospital, Norway"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Marina","family":"Mu\u00f1oz-Rivas","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Autonomous University of Madrid, Spain"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-4918-7377","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Solveig Karin B\u00f8","family":"Vatnar","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Oslo University Hospital, Norway"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"179","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,13]]},"reference":[{"key":"e_1_3_4_2_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Anderson M. 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