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While most research has focused on unidirectional violence, evidence shows that bidirectional violence (BV) is the most common form within intimate relationships. Its recognition, however, is often limited by gender stereotypes that portray women exclusively as victims and men as perpetrators. This study aimed to examine whether university students\u2019 judgments about BV varied according to the proportion of violence, the type of violence, and the initiator of violence, using three immersive virtual reality (VR) scenarios. A total of 162 university students were randomly assigned to view one of the scenarios and subsequently completed a questionnaire. Results showed that physical violence was perceived as more severe than psychological violence, \u201cfemale-dominated\u201d violence was judged more severely than \u201cmale-dominated,\u201d and women were judged more harshly when initiating conflict. No gender differences were found in judgments of responsibility, seriousness, or injury severity in the \u201cmale domination\u201d scenario. These findings suggest that prevention and intervention strategies should move beyond gender-based assumptions, adopting inclusive approaches that address all victims\u2019 experiences and challenge prevailing gender stereotypes.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1177\/08862605261455509","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,30]],"date-time":"2026-06-30T12:39:23Z","timestamp":1782823163000},"page":"6606-6635","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1177\/sage-journals-update-policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":1,"title":["Who is the Victim and Who is the Perpetrator? The Influence of Gender Stereotypes on Bidirectional Intimate Partner Violence Scenario"],"prefix":"10.1177","volume":"41","author":[{"given":"Raquel","family":"Caixinha","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Lus\u00f3fona University, HEI-Lab: Digital Human-Environment Interaction Labs, Portugal"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-9747-2343","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Olga","family":"Cunha","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"University of Minho, Braga, Portugal"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"N\u00e9lio","family":"Braz\u00e3o","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"University of Coimbra, Portugal"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-9732-4631","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Ben","family":"Hine","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"University of West London, Brentford, UK"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8694-8078","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Elizabeth","family":"Bates","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Cumbria University, Carlisle, UK"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Filipe","family":"Luz","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Lus\u00f3fona University, HEI-Lab: Digital Human-Environment Interaction Labs, Portugal"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Filipe","family":"Pinto","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Lus\u00f3fona University, HEI-Lab: Digital Human-Environment Interaction Labs, Portugal"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"In\u00eas","family":"Jongenelen","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Lus\u00f3fona University, HEI-Lab: Digital Human-Environment Interaction Labs, Portugal"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Pedro","family":"Gamito","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Lus\u00f3fona University, HEI-Lab: Digital Human-Environment Interaction Labs, Portugal"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-3791-0732","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Andreia","family":"Machado","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Lus\u00f3fona University, HEI-Lab: Digital Human-Environment Interaction Labs, Portugal"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"179","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,30]]},"reference":[{"key":"e_1_3_3_2_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ahmed S. 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