{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,23]],"date-time":"2026-07-23T15:00:48Z","timestamp":1784818848670,"version":"3.55.0"},"reference-count":75,"publisher":"SAGE Publications","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,21]],"date-time":"2026-07-21T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1784592000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-nc\/4.0\/"},{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,21]],"date-time":"2026-07-21T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1784592000000},"content-version":"tdm","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/journals.sagepub.com\/page\/policies\/text-and-data-mining-license"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/100005289","name":"National Institute of Justice","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["Award No. #2014-R2-CX-0022"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["Award No. #2014-R2-CX-0022"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100005289","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":["journals.sagepub.com"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["J Interpers Violence"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Research on police violence (PV) narrowly defines it as physical force, disregarding its other forms, like psychological violence and neglect, and its co-occurrence with non-police victimization (NPV). This omission is important because of overlapping risk factors and potential compounding harm. Using the National Crime Victimization Survey and Police-Public Contact Survey, this study employs a more expansive definition that includes psychological and neglectful PV and assesses the overlap of these harms with NPV. Psychological PV was the most experienced form, and it was most prevalent among individuals who are male, younger, Black, city residents, and low-income. Any PV exposure, especially physical, was associated with a heightened NPV risk. While Black respondents had a higher likelihood of psychological PV than White individuals, its association with NPV was strongest for White respondents. Findings underscore the need to include PV in polyvictimization research and for alternatives to formal institutions that may perpetuate harm.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1177\/08862605261455579","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,21]],"date-time":"2026-07-21T17:57:13Z","timestamp":1784656633000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1177\/sage-journals-update-policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Reconceptualizing Polyvictimization: Integrating Self-Reported Victimization and Police Use of Force"],"prefix":"10.1177","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-5908-4806","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Ashley N.","family":"Jackson","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Rutgers University, New Brunswick, NJ, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-8441-0546","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Lee Ann","family":"Slocum","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"University of Missouri-St. Louis, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"179","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,21]]},"reference":[{"key":"e_1_3_5_2_1","volume-title":"Code of the street: Decency, violence, and the moral life of the inner city","author":"Anderson E.","year":"1999","unstructured":"Anderson E. (1999). Code of the street: Decency, violence, and the moral life of the inner city. WW Norton & Company."},{"key":"e_1_3_5_3_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1515\/9781620977767"},{"key":"e_1_3_5_4_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ang D. Bencsik P. Bruhn J. Derenoncourt E. (2021). Police violence reduces civilian cooperation and engagement with law enforcement. SSRN Electronic Journal. HKS Working Paper No. RWP21-022. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.2139\/ssrn.3920493","DOI":"10.2139\/ssrn.3920493"},{"key":"e_1_3_5_5_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Barber C. Azrael D. Cohen A. Miller M. Thymes D. Wang D. E. Hemenway D. (2016). Homicides by police: Comparing counts from the national violent death reporting system vital statistics and supplementary homicide reports. American Journal of Public Health 106(5) 922\u2013927. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.2105\/AJPH.2016.303074","DOI":"10.2105\/AJPH.2016.303074"},{"issue":"7","key":"e_1_3_5_6_1","first-page":"2054","article-title":"Police reform and the dismantling of legal estrangement","volume":"126","author":"Bell M. C.","year":"2017","unstructured":"Bell M. C. (2017). Police reform and the dismantling of legal estrangement. Yale Law Journal, 126(7), 2054\u20132150.","journal-title":"Yale Law Journal"},{"key":"e_1_3_5_7_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Boateng F. D. Dzordzormenyoh M. K. (2024). Understanding officers\u2019 behavior in a non-traffic situation: Why will police officers use force and verbally attack citizens during a street stop? In Riccio V. Jia D. Das D. K. (Eds.) Challenges of contemporary policing (pp. 91\u2013106). Taylor & Francis Group. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.4324\/9781003452379","DOI":"10.4324\/9781003452379-6"},{"key":"e_1_3_5_8_1","unstructured":"Burghart D. B. (2021). Fatal encounters. https:\/\/fatalencounters.org\/"},{"key":"e_1_3_5_9_1","unstructured":"Campaign Zero. (2025). Mapping police violence. https:\/\/mappingpoliceviolence.org\/"},{"key":"e_1_3_5_10_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Coetzee J. Gray G. E. Jewkes R. (2017). Prevalence and patterns of victimization and polyvictimization among female sex workers in Soweto a South African township: A cross-sectional respondent-driven sampling study. Global Health Action 10(1) 1403815. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1080\/16549716.2017.1403815","DOI":"10.1080\/16549716.2017.1403815"},{"key":"e_1_3_5_11_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Cohen J. Lynch J. P. (2006). Exploring differences in estimates of visits to emergency rooms using the NCVS and NHAMCS. In Addington L. Lynch J. P. (Eds.) Understanding crime statistics: Revisiting the divergence of the NCVS and UCR (pp. 183\u2013223). Cambridge University Press. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1017\/CBO9780511618543.007","DOI":"10.1017\/CBO9780511618543.007"},{"key":"e_1_3_5_12_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Comer B. P. Ingram J. R. (2023). Comparing fatal encounters mapping police violence and Washington Post fatal police shooting data from 2015\u20132019: A research note. Criminal Justice Review 48(2) 249\u2013261. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1177\/07340168211071014","DOI":"10.1177\/07340168211071014"},{"key":"e_1_3_5_13_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Cooper H. Moore L. Gruskin S. Krieger N. (2004). Characterizing perceived police violence: Implications for public health. American Journal of Public Health 94(7) 1109\u20131118. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.2105\/AJPH.94.7.1109","DOI":"10.2105\/AJPH.94.7.1109"},{"key":"e_1_3_5_14_1","volume-title":"A peculiar indifference: The neglected toll of violence on Black America","author":"Currie E.","year":"2020","unstructured":"Currie E. (2020). A peculiar indifference: The neglected toll of violence on Black America. Metropolitan Books."},{"key":"e_1_3_5_15_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Dertadian G. C. Askew R. (2024). Towards a social harm approach in drug policy. The International Journal of Drug Policy 127 Article 104425. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.drugpo.2024.104425","DOI":"10.1016\/j.drugpo.2024.104425"},{"key":"e_1_3_5_16_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"DeVylder J. E. Anglin D. M. Bowleg L. Fedina L. Link B. G. (2022). Police violence and public health. Annual Review of Clinical Psychology 18 527\u2013552. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1146\/annurev-clinpsy-072720-020644","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev-clinpsy-072720-020644"},{"key":"e_1_3_5_17_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"DeVylder J. E. Oh H. Y. Nam B. Sharpe T. L. Lehmann M. Link B. G. (2017). Prevalence demographic variation and psychological correlates of exposure to police victimisation in four US cities. Epidemiology and Psychiatric Sciences 26(5) 466\u2013477. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1017\/S2045796016000810","DOI":"10.1017\/S2045796016000810"},{"key":"e_1_3_5_18_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Edwards F. Lee H. Esposito M. (2019). Risk of being killed by police use of force in the United States by age race-ethnicity and sex. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 116(34) 16793\u201316798. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1073\/pnas.1821204116","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.1821204116"},{"key":"e_1_3_5_19_1","first-page":"539","article-title":"Stops and stares: Street stops, surveillance, and race in the new policing","volume":"43","author":"Fagan J.","year":"2016","unstructured":"Fagan J., Braga A. A., Brunson R. K., Pattavina A. (2016). Stops and stares: Street stops, surveillance, and race in the new policing. Fordham Urban Law Journal, 43, 539\u2013614.","journal-title":"Fordham Urban Law Journal"},{"key":"e_1_3_5_20_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Federman P. S. (2021). Cop wisdom and the democratic consequences of citizen\u2013state interactions. Administration & Society 54(5) 857\u2013877. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1177\/00953997211046594","DOI":"10.1177\/00953997211046594"},{"key":"e_1_3_5_21_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Fedina L. Backes B. L. Jun H. J. Shah R. Nam B. Link B. G. DeVylder J. E. (2018). Police violence among women in four U.S. cities. Preventive Medicine 106 150\u2013156. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.ypmed.2017.10.037","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ypmed.2017.10.037"},{"key":"e_1_3_5_22_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Finch B. K. Beck A. Burghart D. B. Johnson R. Klinger D. Thomas K. (2019). Using crowd-sourced data to explore police-related-deaths in the United States (2000\u20132017): The case of fatal encounters. Open Health Data 6 1. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.5334\/ohd.30","DOI":"10.5334\/ohd.30"},{"key":"e_1_3_5_23_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Finch B. K. Thomas K. Beck A. N. Burghart D. B. Klinger D. Johnson R. R. (2022). Assessing data completeness quality and representativeness of justifiable homicides in the FBI\u2019s supplementary homicide reports: A research note. Journal of Quantitative Criminology 38(1) 267\u2013293. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s10940-021-09493-x","DOI":"10.1007\/s10940-021-09493-x"},{"key":"e_1_3_5_24_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Finkelhor D. Hamby S. L. Ormrod R. Turner H. (2005). The Juvenile Victimization Questionnaire: Reliability validity and national norms. Child Abuse & Neglect 29(4) 383\u2013412. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.chiabu.2004.11.001","DOI":"10.1016\/j.chiabu.2004.11.001"},{"key":"e_1_3_5_25_1","unstructured":"Finkelhor D. Turner H. Hamby S. Ormrod R. (2011). Polyvictimization: Children\u2019s exposure to multiple types of violence crime and abuse. U.S. Dept. of Justice Office of Justice Programs Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention. https:\/\/www.ojp.gov\/pdffiles1\/ojjdp\/235504.pdf"},{"key":"e_1_3_5_26_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ford J. D. Grasso D. J. Hawke J. Chapman J. F. (2013). Poly-victimization among juvenile justice-involved youths. Child Abuse & Neglect 37(10) 788\u2013800. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.chiabu.2013.01.005","DOI":"10.1016\/j.chiabu.2013.01.005"},{"key":"e_1_3_5_27_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Fox B. H. Perez N. Cass E. Baglivio M. T. Epps N. (2015). Trauma changes everything: Examining the relationship between adverse childhood experiences and serious violent and chronic juvenile offenders. Child Abuse & Neglect 46 163\u2013173. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.chiabu.2015.01.011","DOI":"10.1016\/j.chiabu.2015.01.011"},{"key":"e_1_3_5_28_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Fryer R. G. (2019). An empirical analysis of racial differences in police use of force. Journal of Political Economy 127(3) 1210\u20131261. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1086\/701423","DOI":"10.1086\/701423"},{"key":"e_1_3_5_29_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Fyfe J. J. (1982). Blind justice: Police shootings in Memphis. The Journal of Criminal Law & Criminology 73(2) 707\u2013722. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.2307\/1143112","DOI":"10.2307\/1143112"},{"key":"e_1_3_5_30_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Gau J. M. Brunson R. K. (2012). One question before you get gone.\u2004.\u2004.: Consent search requests as a threat to perceived stop legitimacy. Race and Justice 2(4) 250\u2013273. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1177\/2153368712459273","DOI":"10.1177\/2153368712459273"},{"key":"e_1_3_5_31_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Geller A. Fagan J. Tyler T. Link B. G. (2014). Aggressive policing and the mental health of young urban men. American Journal of Public Health 104(12) 2321\u20132327. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.2105\/AJPH.2014.302046","DOI":"10.2105\/AJPH.2014.302046"},{"key":"e_1_3_5_32_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Greene C. Urbanik M. M. Samuels-Wortley K. (2022). \u201cIt stays with you for life\u201d: The everyday nature and impact of police violence in Toronto\u2019s Inner-City. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 19(17) Article 10503. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/ijerph191710503","DOI":"10.3390\/ijerph191710503"},{"key":"e_1_3_5_33_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Haile R. Rowell-Cunsolo T. Hyacinthe M.-F. Alang S. (2023). \u201cWe (still) charge genocide\u201d: A systematic review and synthesis of the direct and indirect health consequences of police violence in the United States. Social Science & Medicine (1982) 322 Article 115784. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.socscimed.2023.115784","DOI":"10.1016\/j.socscimed.2023.115784"},{"key":"e_1_3_5_34_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Higgins G. E. Jennings W. G. Jordan K. L. Gabbidon S. L. (2011). Racial profiling in decisions to search: A preliminary analysis using propensity-score matching. International Journal of Police Science & Management 13(4) 336\u2013347. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1350\/ijps.2011.13.4.232","DOI":"10.1350\/ijps.2011.13.4.232"},{"key":"e_1_3_5_35_1","first-page":"62","volume-title":"Criminal obsessions: Why harm matters more than crime","author":"Hillyard P.","year":"2005","unstructured":"Hillyard P., Pantazis C., Tombs S., Gordon D. (2005). Social harm and its limits. In Dorling D., Gordon D., Hillyard P., Pantazis C., Pemberton S., Tombs S. (Eds.), Criminal obsessions: Why harm matters more than crime (2nd ed., pp. 62\u201369). Centre for Crime and Justice Studies.","edition":"2"},{"key":"e_1_3_5_36_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1086\/227905"},{"key":"e_1_3_5_37_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Holliday C. N. Kahn G. Thorpe R. J.Jr. Shah R. Hameeduddin Z. Decker M. R. (2020). Racial\/ethnic disparities in police reporting for partner violence in the National Crime Victimization Survey and survivor-led interpretation. Journal of Racial and Ethnic Health Disparities 7(3) 468\u2013480. https:\/\/link.springer.com\/article\/10.1007\/s40615-019-00675-9","DOI":"10.1007\/s40615-019-00675-9"},{"key":"e_1_3_5_38_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hollis M. E. (2018). Measurement issues in police use of force: A state-of-the-art review. Policing: An International Journal of Police Strategies & Management 41(6) 844\u2013858. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1108\/PIJPSM-11-2017-0137","DOI":"10.1108\/PIJPSM-11-2017-0137"},{"key":"e_1_3_5_39_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hope T. Bryan J. Trickett A. Osborn D. R. (2001). The phenomena of multiple victimization. The relationship between personal and property crime risk. British Journal of Criminology 41(4) 595\u2013617. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1093\/bjc\/41.4.595","DOI":"10.1093\/bjc\/41.4.595"},{"key":"e_1_3_5_40_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hu X. Zhang X. Lovrich N. (2020). Public perceptions of police behavior during traffic stops: Logistic regression and machine learning approaches compared. Journal of Computational Social Science 4(1) 355\u2013380. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s42001-020-00079-4","DOI":"10.1007\/s42001-020-00079-4"},{"key":"e_1_3_5_41_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Jackson A. N. (2022). The more things change the more they stay the same: A spatial analysis of historical and contemporary incidents of police violence. In Leitz L. (Ed.) Race and space (Research in Social Movements Conflicts and Change Vol. 46 pp. 65\u201386). Emerald Publishing Limited. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1108\/S0163-786X20220000046004","DOI":"10.1108\/S0163-786X20220000046004"},{"key":"e_1_3_5_42_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Jackson A. N. Fedina L. DeVylder J. Barth R. P. (2021). Police violence and associations with public perceptions of the police. Journal of the Society for Social Work and Research 12(2) 303\u2013326. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1086\/711683","DOI":"10.1086\/711683"},{"key":"e_1_3_5_43_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Johnson O. Vil C. S. Gilbert K. L. Goodman M. Johnson C. A. (2019). How neighborhoods matter in fatal interactions between police and men of color. Social Science & Medicine 220 226\u2013235. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.socscimed.2018.11.024","DOI":"10.1016\/j.socscimed.2018.11.024"},{"key":"e_1_3_5_44_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Jun H.-J. DeVylder J. E. Fedina L. (2020). Police violence among adults diagnosed with mental disorders. Health & Social Work 45(2) 81\u201389. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1093\/hsw\/hlaa003","DOI":"10.1093\/hsw\/hlaa003"},{"key":"e_1_3_5_45_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kajeepeta S. Bates L. M. Keyes K. M. Bailey Z. D. Roberts D. E. Bruzelius E. Askari M. S. Prins S. J. (2024). Generalized and racialized consequences of the police response to intimate partner violence in the US: A systematic scoping review. Aggression and Violent Behavior 78 Article 101947. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.avb.2024.101947","DOI":"10.1016\/j.avb.2024.101947"},{"key":"e_1_3_5_46_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Krug E. G. Mercy J. A. Dahlberg L. L. Zwi A. B. (2002). World report on violence and health: Summary. The Lancet 360(9339) 1083\u20131088. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/S0140-6736(02)11133-0","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(02)11133-0"},{"key":"e_1_3_5_47_1","first-page":"55","volume-title":"Surveying crime in the 21st century","author":"Lauritsen J. L.","year":"2007","unstructured":"Lauritsen J. L., Laub J. H. (2007). Understanding the link between victimization and offending: New reflections on an old idea. In Hough M., Maxfield M. (Eds.), Surveying crime in the 21st century (pp. 55\u201375). Criminal Justice Press."},{"key":"e_1_3_5_48_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lauritsen J. L. Sampson R. J. Laub J. H. (1991). The link between offending and victimization among adolescents. Criminology 29(2) 265\u2013292. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1111\/j.1745-9125.1991.tb01067.x","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1745-9125.1991.tb01067.x"},{"key":"e_1_3_5_49_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Logie C. H. Wang Y. Marcus N. Lalor P. Williams D. Levermore K. (2020). Pathways from police intimate partner and client violence to condom use outcomes among sex workers in Jamaica. International Journal of Behavioral Medicine 27(4) 378\u2013388. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s12529-020-09860-1","DOI":"10.1007\/s12529-020-09860-1"},{"key":"e_1_3_5_50_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Meyer M. A. Gonzalez R. (2024). Detecting bias in traffic searches: Examining false searches of innocent drivers. Journal of Quantitative Criminology 40(4) 791\u2013812. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s10940-024-09585-4","DOI":"10.1007\/s10940-024-09585-4"},{"key":"e_1_3_5_51_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Mize T. (2019). Best practices for estimating interpreting and presenting nonlinear interaction effects. Sociological Science 6(4) 81\u2013117. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.15195\/v6.a4","DOI":"10.15195\/v6.a4"},{"key":"e_1_3_5_52_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Mossige S. Huang L. (2017). Poly-victimization in a Norwegian adolescent population: Prevalence social and psychological profile and detrimental effects. PLoS One 12(12) Article e0189637. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1371\/journal.pone.0189637","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0189637"},{"key":"e_1_3_5_53_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Motley R. O. Joe S. (2018). Police use of force by ethnicity sex and socioeconomic class. Journal of the Society for Social Work and Research 9(1) 49\u201367. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1086\/696355","DOI":"10.1086\/696355"},{"key":"e_1_3_5_54_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Motley R. O. Patel P. Roh H. Walker D. T. (2024). Police violence exposure and associated health outcomes among Latinx adults in the United States: An integrative review. Trauma Violence & Abuse 25(5) 4204\u20134215. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1177\/15248380241270078","DOI":"10.1177\/15248380241270078"},{"key":"e_1_3_5_55_1","unstructured":"National Archive of Criminal Justice Data. (n.d.). Resource guide: National Crime Victimization Survey. https:\/\/www.icpsr.umich.edu\/web\/pages\/NACJD\/NCVS\/index.html"},{"key":"e_1_3_5_56_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Nguyen T.-T. Roman C. (2024). Living in the margins: Assessing police engagement as a form of victim help-seeking through legal estrangement. Victims & Offenders 19(4) 613\u2013640. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1080\/15564886.2023.2214808","DOI":"10.1080\/15564886.2023.2214808"},{"key":"e_1_3_5_57_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Nix J. Campbell B. A. Byers E. H. Alpert G. P. (2017). A bird\u2019s eye view of civilians killed by police in 2015: Further evidence of implicit bias. Criminology & Public Policy 16(1) 309\u2013340. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1111\/1745-9133.12269","DOI":"10.1111\/1745-9133.12269"},{"key":"e_1_3_5_58_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Nixon R. (2011). Slow violence and the environmentalism of the poor (1st ed.). Harvard University Press. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.4159\/harvard.9780674061194","DOI":"10.4159\/harvard.9780674061194"},{"key":"e_1_3_5_59_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ogle C. M. Harmon-Darrow C. Fedina L. Nichols D. Mulford C. F. Backes B. L. (2024). Operational definitions of poly-victimization: A scoping review. Trauma Violence & Abuse 25(4) 3360\u20133376. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1177\/15248380241246522","DOI":"10.1177\/15248380241246522"},{"key":"e_1_3_5_60_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Oppenheim S. Webb L. Testa A. Fix R. L. Clary L. Mendelson T. Jackson D. B. (2024). Police violence exposure and traumatic stress among youth: A systematic review. Trauma Violence & Abuse 25(5) 3662\u20133679. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1177\/15248380241255735","DOI":"10.1177\/15248380241255735"},{"key":"e_1_3_5_61_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Peitzmeier S. M. Wirtz A. L. Beyrer C. Peryshkina A. Sherman S. G. Colantuoni E. Decker M. R. (2021). Polyvictimization among Russian sex workers: Intimate partner police and pimp violence cluster with client violence. Journal of Interpersonal Violence 36(15\u201316) NP8056\u2013NP8081. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1177\/0886260519839431","DOI":"10.1177\/0886260519839431"},{"key":"e_1_3_5_62_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Radtke S. R. Wretman C. J. Fraga Rizo C. Franchino-Olsen H. Williams D. Y. Chen W.-T. Macy R. J. (2024). A systematic review of conceptualizations and operationalizations of youth polyvictimization. Trauma Violence & Abuse 25(4) 2721\u20132734. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1177\/15248380231224026","DOI":"10.1177\/15248380231224026"},{"key":"e_1_3_5_63_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ratcliffe J. H. (2015). Towards an index for harm-focused policing. Policing: A Journal of Policy and Practice 9(2) 164\u2013182. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1093\/police\/pau032","DOI":"10.1093\/police\/pau032"},{"key":"e_1_3_5_64_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.18574\/nyu\/9780814777114.001.0001"},{"key":"e_1_3_5_65_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Salas-Hern\u00e1ndez L. DeVylder J. E. Cooper H. L. F. Duarte C. d. P. Sewell A. A. Walker E. R. Haard\u00f6rfer R. (2022). Latent class profiles of police violence exposure in 4 US cities and their associations with anticipation of police violence and mental health outcomes. Journal of Urban Health 99(4) 655\u2013668. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s11524-022-00643-5","DOI":"10.1007\/s11524-022-00643-5"},{"key":"e_1_3_5_66_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sheppard K. G. Stowell J. I. (2022). Police fatal force and crime reporting: A test of community responses to fatal police-civilian encounters. Journal of Interpersonal Violence 37(21\u201322) NP19730\u2013NP19758. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1177\/08862605211043579","DOI":"10.1177\/08862605211043579"},{"key":"e_1_3_5_67_1","unstructured":"Slocum L. A. (2021). The effect of prior police contact on victimization reporting: Results from the police-public contact and National Crime Victimization Surveys United States 2002\u20132011. Inter-university Consortium for Political and Social Research [distributor]. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3886\/ICPSR36370.v1"},{"key":"e_1_3_5_68_1","volume-title":"Stata statistical software (Release 17)","author":"StataCorp.","year":"2021","unstructured":"StataCorp. (2021). Stata statistical software (Release 17). StataCorp LLC."},{"key":"e_1_3_5_69_1","volume-title":"Contacts between police and the public, 2020","author":"Tapp S. N.","year":"2022","unstructured":"Tapp S. N., Davis E. J. (2022). Contacts between police and the public, 2020. Bureau of Justice Statistics, U.S. Department of Justice."},{"key":"e_1_3_5_70_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Turner H. A. Finkelhor D. Ormrod R. (2010). Poly-victimization in a national sample of children and youth. American Journal of Preventive Medicine 38(3) 323\u2013330. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.amepre.2009.11.012","DOI":"10.1016\/j.amepre.2009.11.012"},{"key":"e_1_3_5_71_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Voisin D. R. Bird J. D. Hardestry M. Cheng Shi S. (2011). African American adolescents living and coping with community violence on Chicago\u2019s southside. Journal of Interpersonal Violence 26(12) 2483\u20132498. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1177\/0886260510383029","DOI":"10.1177\/0886260510383029"},{"key":"e_1_3_5_72_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Voisin D. R. Takahashi L. M. (2021). The relationship between violence syndemics and sexual risk behaviors among African American adolescents: Implications for future research. Journal of Adolescent Health 68(5) 937\u2013944. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.jadohealth.2020.11.015","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jadohealth.2020.11.015"},{"key":"e_1_3_5_73_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ward G. (2015). The slow violence of state organized race crime. Theoretical Criminology 19(3) 299\u2013314. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1177\/1362480614550119","DOI":"10.1177\/1362480614550119"},{"key":"e_1_3_5_74_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ward J. A. Cepeda J. A. Jackson D. B. Crifasi C. K. (2024). Characteristics of injurious shootings by police along the urban-rural continuum. American Journal of Preventive Medicine 67(4) 512\u2013520. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.amepre.2024.05.021","DOI":"10.1016\/j.amepre.2024.05.021"},{"key":"e_1_3_5_75_1","unstructured":"Widom C. S. Maxfield M. G. (2001). An update on the \u201ccycle of violence\u201d (NIJ Research in Brief No. 184894). National Institute of Justice U.S. Department of Justice. https:\/\/www.ojp.gov\/pdffiles1\/nij\/184894.pdf"},{"key":"e_1_3_5_76_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wiley S. A. Slocum L. A. Esbensen F. A. (2023). From school halls to shopping malls: Multilevel predictors of police contact in and out of school. Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency 60(5) 623\u2013663. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1177\/00224278221096985","DOI":"10.1177\/00224278221096985"}],"container-title":["Journal of Interpersonal Violence"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/journals.sagepub.com\/doi\/pdf\/10.1177\/08862605261455579","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/journals.sagepub.com\/doi\/full-xml\/10.1177\/08862605261455579","content-type":"application\/xml","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/journals.sagepub.com\/doi\/pdf\/10.1177\/08862605261455579","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,23]],"date-time":"2026-07-23T14:02:07Z","timestamp":1784815327000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/journals.sagepub.com\/doi\/10.1177\/08862605261455579"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,21]]},"references-count":75,"alternative-id":["10.1177\/08862605261455579"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1177\/08862605261455579","relation":{},"ISSN":["0886-2605","1552-6518"],"issn-type":[{"value":"0886-2605","type":"print"},{"value":"1552-6518","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,21]]},"article-number":"08862605261455579"}}