{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,4]],"date-time":"2026-05-04T20:11:00Z","timestamp":1777925460428,"version":"3.51.4"},"reference-count":55,"publisher":"SAGE Publications","issue":"4","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2021,2,23]],"date-time":"2021-02-23T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1614038400000},"content-version":"tdm","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/journals.sagepub.com\/page\/policies\/text-and-data-mining-license"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/100000180","name":"U.S. Department of Homeland Security","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["ASUB00000368"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["ASUB00000368"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100000180","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":["journals.sagepub.com"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["Social Science Computer Review"],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2022,8]]},"abstract":"<jats:p>Social scientists have long been interested in the motives of hackers, particularly financially motivated attackers. This article analyzes web defacements, a less studied and more public form of cyberattack, in which the content of a web page is deliberately substituted with unwanted text and graphics chosen by the perpetrator. These attacks use a variety of strategies and are performed for a variety of motives, including political and ideological goals. The proliferation of such attacks has resulted in vast amounts of data that open new opportunities for qualitative and quantitative analysis. This article explores the usefulness of machine learning techniques to better understand attacker strategies and motivations. To detect overall attack patterns, this analysis utilized a sample of 40,000 images posted on defaced websites analyzed through deep machine learning methods. The approach demonstrates the potential of machine learning approaches for the study of cyberattacks, but it also reveals the considerable challenges that need to be overcome.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1177\/0894439321994234","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2021,2,23]],"date-time":"2021-02-23T05:44:24Z","timestamp":1614059064000},"page":"914-932","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1177\/sage-journals-update-policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":6,"title":["Using Machine Learning to Examine Cyberattack Motivations on Web Defacement Data"],"prefix":"10.1177","volume":"40","author":[{"given":"Sudipta","family":"Banerjee","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Thomas","family":"Swearingen","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Ruth","family":"Shillair","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Johannes M.","family":"Bauer","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Thomas","family":"Holt","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Arun","family":"Ross","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"179","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,2,23]]},"reference":[{"key":"bibr1-0894439321994234","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1126\/science.1130992"},{"key":"bibr2-0894439321994234","volume-title":"Cyber warfare: Techniques, tactics and tools for security practitioners","author":"Andress J.","year":"2013"},{"key":"bibr3-0894439321994234","unstructured":"Balduzzi M., Flores R., Gu L., Maggi F. (2018). A deep dive into defacement: How geopolitical events trigger web attacks. Trend Micro. https:\/\/documents.trendmicro.com\/assets\/white_papers\/wp-a-deep-dive-into-defacement.pdf"},{"key":"bibr4-0894439321994234","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.telpol.2009.09.001"},{"key":"bibr5-0894439321994234","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-642-39498-0"},{"key":"bibr6-0894439321994234","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1093\/acprof:oso\/9780195385014.001.0001"},{"key":"bibr7-0894439321994234","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/ICCV.2017.626"},{"key":"bibr8-0894439321994234","volume-title":"CSI computer crime and security survey 2010\/2011","author":"Computer Security Institute","year":"2011"},{"key":"bibr9-0894439321994234","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"103","DOI":"10.1007\/978-1-4939-0962-9_6","volume-title":"Cyberterrorism: Understanding, assessment, and response","author":"Conway M.","year":"2014"},{"key":"bibr10-0894439321994234","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/CVPR.2005.177"},{"key":"bibr11-0894439321994234","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.28945\/3801"},{"key":"bibr12-0894439321994234","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.4018\/978-1-61692-805-6.ch009"},{"key":"bibr13-0894439321994234","unstructured":"Department of Homeland Security, Office of Intelligence and Analysis Assessment. (2009). Leftwing extremists likely to increase use of cyberattacks over the coming decade. https:\/\/fas.org\/irp\/eprint\/leftwing.pdf"},{"key":"bibr15-0894439321994234","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/3-540-45068-8_2"},{"key":"bibr16-0894439321994234","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Giacomello G. (2004). Bangs for the buck: A cost-benefit analysis of cyberterrorism. Studies in Conflict & Terrorism, 27(5), 387\u2013408. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1080\/10576100490483660","DOI":"10.1080\/10576100490483660"},{"key":"bibr17-0894439321994234","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3390\/computers8020035"},{"key":"bibr18-0894439321994234","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1080\/01639620601131065"},{"key":"bibr19-0894439321994234","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1080\/09546553.2011.648350"},{"key":"bibr20-0894439321994234","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.4324\/9781315775944"},{"key":"bibr21-0894439321994234","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1177\/0306624X16679162"},{"key":"bibr22-0894439321994234","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1177\/1043986217699100"},{"key":"bibr23-0894439321994234","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Holt T. J., Stonhouse M., Freilich J., Chermak S. M. (2019). Examining ideologically motivated cyberattacks performed by far-left groups. Terrorism and Political Violence. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1080\/09546553.2018.1551213","DOI":"10.1080\/09546553.2018.1551213"},{"key":"bibr151-0894439321994234","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1093\/bjc\/azu106"},{"key":"bibr24-0894439321994234","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.patrec.2009.09.011"},{"key":"bibr25-0894439321994234","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/1467-954X.00139"},{"key":"bibr26-0894439321994234","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.4324\/9780203490037"},{"key":"bibr27-0894439321994234","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/TPAMI.2002.1017616"},{"key":"bibr152-0894439321994234","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1177\/0894439311422689"},{"key":"bibr28-0894439321994234","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.4018\/978-1-61692-805-6.ch011"},{"key":"bibr30-0894439321994234","first-page":"1097","volume-title":"Advances in neural information processing systems","volume":"25","author":"Krizhevsky A.","year":"2012"},{"key":"bibr31-0894439321994234","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s10611-016-9663-1"},{"key":"bibr32-0894439321994234","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s10611-016-9662-2"},{"key":"bibr153-0894439321994234","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1080\/01639625.2015.1012409"},{"key":"bibr33-0894439321994234","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1145\/3196494.3196542"},{"key":"bibr35-0894439321994234","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1093\/bjc\/azs067"},{"key":"bibr36-0894439321994234","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1093\/bjc\/azu104"},{"key":"bibr37-0894439321994234","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jcrimjus.2013.07.005"},{"key":"bibr38-0894439321994234","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/TPAMI.2002.1017623"},{"key":"bibr39-0894439321994234","unstructured":"Ponemon Institute. (2016). Cost of cyber crime study & the risk of business innovation. https:\/\/www.ponemon.org\/local\/upload\/file\/2016%20HPE%20CCC%20GLOBAL%20REPORT%20FINAL%203.pdf"},{"key":"bibr40-0894439321994234","first-page":"191","volume-title":"Crime on-line: Causes, correlates, and context","author":"Rege A.","year":"2013"},{"key":"bibr41-0894439321994234","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.diin.2006.03.001"},{"key":"bibr42-0894439321994234","first-page":"1","volume-title":"27th Virus bulletin international conference","volume":"1","author":"Romagna M.","year":"2017"},{"key":"bibr43-0894439321994234","volume-title":"The hacking of America: Who\u2019s doing it, why, and how","author":"Schell B. H.","year":"2002"},{"key":"bibr44-0894439321994234","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.2307\/j.ctt1bj4rth"},{"key":"bibr45-0894439321994234","volume-title":"Symantec internet security threat report","volume":"23","author":"Symantec Corporation","year":"2018"},{"key":"bibr46-0894439321994234","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.4324\/9780203201503"},{"key":"bibr47-0894439321994234","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1145\/2072521.2072523"},{"key":"bibr49-0894439321994234","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/soc4.12036"},{"key":"bibr50-0894439321994234","volume-title":"The transformation of crime in the information age","author":"Wall D. S.","year":"2007"},{"key":"bibr51-0894439321994234","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1207\/s1532785xmep0601_3"},{"key":"bibr52-0894439321994234","first-page":"478","volume-title":"Proceedings of the 2016 international conference on machine learning","author":"Xie J.","year":"2016"},{"key":"bibr155-0894439321994234","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1177\/147737080556056"},{"key":"bibr53-0894439321994234","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1080\/10439463.2013.780227"},{"key":"bibr54-0894439321994234","unstructured":"Zone-H. (2011, June 1). Defacements statistics 2010: Almost 1,5 million websites defaced, what\u2019s happening? http:\/\/www.zone-h.org\/news\/id\/4737"},{"key":"bibr55-0894439321994234","unstructured":"Zone-H. (2020). Zone-H unrestricted information. http:\/\/www.zone-h.org\/archive\/special=1"}],"container-title":["Social Science Computer Review"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/journals.sagepub.com\/doi\/pdf\/10.1177\/0894439321994234","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/journals.sagepub.com\/doi\/full-xml\/10.1177\/0894439321994234","content-type":"application\/xml","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/journals.sagepub.com\/doi\/pdf\/10.1177\/0894439321994234","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,1]],"date-time":"2026-05-01T21:46:41Z","timestamp":1777672001000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/journals.sagepub.com\/doi\/10.1177\/0894439321994234"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2021,2,23]]},"references-count":55,"journal-issue":{"issue":"4","published-print":{"date-parts":[[2022,8]]}},"alternative-id":["10.1177\/0894439321994234"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1177\/0894439321994234","relation":{},"ISSN":["0894-4393","1552-8286"],"issn-type":[{"value":"0894-4393","type":"print"},{"value":"1552-8286","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2021,2,23]]}}}