{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,4]],"date-time":"2026-10-04T16:36:00Z","timestamp":1791131760843,"version":"4.1.0"},"reference-count":29,"publisher":"SAGE Publications","issue":"13-14","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,11,21]],"date-time":"2025-11-21T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1763683200000},"content-version":"tdm","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/journals.sagepub.com\/page\/policies\/text-and-data-mining-license"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["journals.sagepub.com"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["Journal of Neurotrauma"],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,1]]},"abstract":"<jats:p>\n                    The increasing use of artificial intelligence-driven chatbots for medical queries requires a systematic evaluation of their accuracy, reliability, and potential role in patient education. This study assesses the performance of three widely used chatbots\u2014ChatGPT, Google Gemini, and Microsoft CoPilot\u2014in answering patient-oriented questions related to traumatic brain injury (TBI). A standardized set of questions related to TBI was developed, divided into eight subtopics, and presented to each chatbot using unified prompts. The responses were evaluated together with reference answers prepared by experts from a group of specialists in the fields of neurology, neurosurgery, and neurorehabilitation, and subsequently assessed in a survey of patients undergoing rehabilitation for TBI. Performance was evaluated using a modified scoring framework in five key dimensions of quality. Statistical analysis included multivariate analysis of variance to compare chatbot performance and logistic regression analysis to determine the likelihood of chatbot responses being considered an adequate substitute for expert advice. Significant differences between the chatbots were found in several quality dimensions, with ChatGPT scoring higher than Gemini and CoPilot on reliability, responsiveness, and perceived trustworthiness (\n                    <jats:italic toggle=\"yes\">p<\/jats:italic>\n                    &lt; 0.05). No chatbot consistently demonstrated an advantage in conveying empathy. Logistic regression analysis revealed that responses from ChatGPT were significantly more likely to be rated as an adequate substitute for expert input (\n                    <jats:italic toggle=\"yes\">p<\/jats:italic>\n                    &lt; 0.0001, OR = 4.3, 95% CI: 2.4\u20137.6). AI-driven chatbots vary in their ability to provide high-quality medical information, with significant differences in reliability and responsiveness. While ChatGPT outperformed other models in providing structured information, further improvements in context awareness and empathy are needed before broader clinical integration can be considered.\n                  <\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1177\/08977151251401539","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,12,1]],"date-time":"2025-12-01T10:12:41Z","timestamp":1764583961000},"page":"1126-1134","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1177\/sage-journals-update-policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":3,"title":["Artificial Intelligence Chatbot Responses to Patient Queries on Traumatic Brain Injury: An Expert Assessment of Reliability and Accuracy"],"prefix":"10.1177","volume":"43","author":[{"given":"Patrick","family":"Schuss","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Neurosurgery, BG Klinikum Unfallkrankenhaus Berlin, Berlin, Germany."}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Andreas S.","family":"Gonschorek","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Neurology, BG Klinikum Hamburg, Hamburg, Germany."}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Michael","family":"K\u00e4mper","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Neurosurgery, BG Klinikum Hamburg, Hamburg, Germany."}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Johannes","family":"Lemcke","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Neurosurgery, BG Klinikum Unfallkrankenhaus Berlin, Berlin, Germany."}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Hans-J\u00f6rg","family":"Meisel","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Neurosurgery, BG Klinikum Bergmannstrost Halle, Halle, Germany."}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Witold","family":"Rogge","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Neurology, BG Klinikum Unfallkrankenhaus Berlin, Berlin, Germany."}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Marc","family":"Schaan","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Neurorehabilitation, BG Klinikum Unfallklinik Murnau, Murnau, Germany."}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Peter","family":"Schwenkreis","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Neurology, BG University Hospital Bergmannsheil, Bochum, Germany."}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Martin","family":"Strowitzki","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Neurosurgery, BG Klinikum Unfallklinik Murnau, Murnau, Germany."}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Kai","family":"Wohlfahrt","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Neurology, BG Klinikum Bergmannstrost Halle, Halle, Germany."}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Ingo","family":"Schmehl","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Neurology, BG Klinikum Unfallkrankenhaus Berlin, Berlin, Germany."}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"name":"on behalf of the Neuro-Trauma Working 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