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Despite extensive research, there remains a shortage of effective disease-modifying medicines, which is due in part to the failure to translate molecular insights into clinically useful models and diagnostics.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Objectives<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>\n                      This review will summarize recent developments in the PD pathophysiology and diagnostic, therapeutic and experimental models and will focus on the newer\n                      <jats:italic toggle=\"yes\">in vivo<\/jats:italic>\n                      ,\n                      <jats:italic toggle=\"yes\">in vitro<\/jats:italic>\n                      and bioengineered\n                      <jats:italic toggle=\"yes\">in vivo<\/jats:italic>\n                      platforms.\n                    <\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Methods<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>Recent studies on animal models, patient-induced pluripotent stem cell (iPSC) systems, three-dimensional (3D) bioprinting, neuroimaging, and biomarker discovery have been critically examined to determine their translational potential and limitations.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Results<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>Traditional animal models are effective at replicating dopaminergic degradation but fall short of fully replicating progressive and systemic elements of Parkinson's disease. iPSC-derived neurons and 3D-bioprinted constructs are more genetically specific and cellularly complex, allowing for patient-relevant modeling and medication screening. Advances in imaging and molecular biomarkers aid in earlier detection; nevertheless, no cross-validation or platform standards has been established.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Conclusion<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>Combining cellular, molecular, and bioengineered models with clinical diagnostics has the potential to improve translational accuracy and accelerate the development of disease-modifying treatments. 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