{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,17]],"date-time":"2026-10-17T04:44:48Z","timestamp":1792212288787,"version":"4.4.0"},"reference-count":42,"publisher":"SAGE Publications","issue":"4","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,4,1]],"date-time":"2025-04-01T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1743465600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"},{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,4,1]],"date-time":"2025-04-01T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1743465600000},"content-version":"tdm","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/journals.sagepub.com\/page\/policies\/text-and-data-mining-license"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100000781","name":"european research council","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["773079"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["773079"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100000781","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100004189","name":"max-planck-gesellschaft","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100004189","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":["journals.sagepub.com"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["Psychol Sci"],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2025,4]]},"abstract":"<jats:p>In face-to-face conversation, people use speech and gesture to convey meaning. Seeing gestures alongside speech facilitates comprehenders\u2019 language processing, but crucially, the mechanisms underlying this facilitation remain unclear. We investigated whether comprehenders use the semantic information in gestures, typically preceding related speech, to predict upcoming meaning. Dutch adults listened to questions asked by a virtual avatar. Questions were accompanied by an iconic gesture (e.g., typing) or meaningless control movement (e.g., arm scratch) followed by a short pause and target word (e.g., \u201ctype\u201d). A Cloze experiment showed that gestures improved explicit predictions of upcoming target words. Moreover, an EEG experiment showed that gestures reduced alpha and beta power during the pause, indicating anticipation, and reduced N400 amplitudes, demonstrating facilitated semantic processing. Thus, comprehenders use iconic gestures to predict upcoming meaning. Theories of linguistic prediction should incorporate communicative bodily signals as predictive cues to capture how language is processed in face-to-face interaction.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1177\/09567976251331041","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,4,22]],"date-time":"2025-04-22T11:01:38Z","timestamp":1745319698000},"page":"237-248","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1177\/sage-journals-update-policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":9,"title":["Co-Speech Hand Gestures Are Used to Predict Upcoming Meaning"],"prefix":"10.1177","volume":"36","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-4029-4993","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Marlijn","family":"ter Bekke","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Donders Institute for Brain, Cognition, and Behaviour, Radboud University"},{"name":"Max Planck Institute for Psycholinguistics, Nijmegen, the Netherlands"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-9154-7033","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Linda","family":"Drijvers","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Donders Institute for Brain, Cognition, and Behaviour, Radboud University"},{"name":"Max Planck Institute for Psycholinguistics, Nijmegen, the Netherlands"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Judith","family":"Holler","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Donders Institute for Brain, Cognition, and Behaviour, Radboud University"},{"name":"Max Planck Institute for Psycholinguistics, Nijmegen, the Netherlands"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"179","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,4,22]]},"reference":[{"key":"e_1_3_5_2_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Anwyl-Irvine A. L. Massonni\u00e9 J. Flitton A. Kirkham N. Evershed J. K. (2020). Gorilla in our midst: An online behavioral experiment builder. Behavior Research Methods 52(1) 388\u2013407. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3758\/s13428-019-01237-x","DOI":"10.3758\/s13428-019-01237-x"},{"key":"e_1_3_5_3_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Arnal L. H. Wyart V. Giraud A.-L. (2011). Transitions in neural oscillations reflect prediction errors generated in audiovisual speech. Nature Neuroscience 14(6) 797\u2013801. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1038\/nn.2810","DOI":"10.1038\/nn.2810"},{"key":"e_1_3_5_4_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bates D. M\u00e4chler M. Bolker B. Walker S. (2015). Fitting linear mixed-effects models using lme4. Journal of Statistical Software 67(1) 1\u201348. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.18637\/jss.v067.i01","DOI":"10.18637\/jss.v067.i01"},{"issue":"9","key":"e_1_3_5_5_1","first-page":"341","article-title":"Praat, a system for doing phonetics by computer","volume":"5","author":"Boersma P.","year":"2001","unstructured":"Boersma P. (2001). Praat, a system for doing phonetics by computer. Glot International, 5(9\/10), 341\u2013345.","journal-title":"Glot International"},{"key":"e_1_3_5_6_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Chandrasekaran C. Trubanova A. Stillittano S. Caplier A. Ghazanfar A. A. (2009). The natural statistics of audiovisual speech. PLOS Computational Biology 5(7) Article e1000436. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1371\/journal.pcbi.1000436","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pcbi.1000436"},{"key":"e_1_3_5_7_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Fritz I. Kita S. Littlemore J. Krott A. (2021). Multimodal language processing: How preceding discourse constrains gesture interpretation and affects gesture integration when gestures do not synchronise with semantic affiliates. Journal of Memory and Language 117 Article 104191. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.jml.2020.104191","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jml.2020.104191"},{"key":"e_1_3_5_8_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Gastaldon S. Arcara G. Navarrete E. Peressotti F. (2020). Commonalities in alpha and beta neural desynchronizations during prediction in language comprehension and production. Cortex 133 328\u2013345. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.cortex.2020.09.026","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cortex.2020.09.026"},{"key":"e_1_3_5_9_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Habets B. Kita S. Shao Z. \u00d6zyurek A. Hagoort P. (2011). The role of synchrony and ambiguity in speech\u2013gesture integration during comprehension. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience 23(8) 1845\u20131854. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1162\/jocn.2010.21462","DOI":"10.1162\/jocn.2010.21462"},{"key":"e_1_3_5_10_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hintz F. Khoe Y. H. Strau\u00df A. Psomakas A. J. A. Holler J. (2023). Electrophysiological evidence for the enhancement of gesture-speech integration by linguistic predictability during multimodal discourse comprehension. Cognitive Affective & Behavioral Neuroscience 23(2) 340\u2013353. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3758\/s13415-023-01074-8","DOI":"10.3758\/s13415-023-01074-8"},{"key":"e_1_3_5_11_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Holler J. Kendrick K. H. Levinson S. C. (2018). Processing language in face-to-face conversation: Questions with gestures get faster responses. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review 25(5) 1900\u20131908. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3758\/s13423-017-1363-z","DOI":"10.3758\/s13423-017-1363-z"},{"key":"e_1_3_5_12_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Holler J. Levinson S. C. (2019). Multimodal language processing in human communication. Trends in Cognitive Sciences 23(8) 639\u2013652. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.tics.2019.05.006","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tics.2019.05.006"},{"key":"e_1_3_5_13_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Huettig F. (2015). Four central questions about prediction in language processing. Brain Research 1626 118\u2013135. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.brainres.2015.02.014","DOI":"10.1016\/j.brainres.2015.02.014"},{"key":"e_1_3_5_14_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Huizeling E. Peeters D. Hagoort P. (2022). Prediction of upcoming speech under fluent and disfluent conditions: Eye tracking evidence from immersive virtual reality. Language Cognition and Neuroscience 37(4) 481\u2013508. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1080\/23273798.2021.1994621","DOI":"10.1080\/23273798.2021.1994621"},{"key":"e_1_3_5_15_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kelly S. D. \u00d6zy\u00fcrek A. Maris E. (2010). Two sides of the same coin: Speech and gesture mutually interact to enhance comprehension. Psychological Science 21(2) 260\u2013267. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1177\/0956797609357327","DOI":"10.1177\/0956797609357327"},{"key":"e_1_3_5_16_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kendrick K. H. Holler J. Levinson S. C. (2023). Turn-taking in human face-to-face interaction is multimodal: Gaze direction and manual gestures aid the coordination of turn transitions. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences 378(1875) Article 20210473. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1098\/rstb.2021.0473","DOI":"10.1098\/rstb.2021.0473"},{"key":"e_1_3_5_17_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Krason A. Fenton R. Varley R. Vigliocco G. (2022). The role of iconic gestures and mouth movements in face-to-face communication. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review 29(2) 600\u2013612. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3758\/s13423-021-02009-5","DOI":"10.3758\/s13423-021-02009-5"},{"key":"e_1_3_5_18_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kuperberg G. R. Jaeger T. F. (2016). What do we mean by prediction in language comprehension? Language Cognition and Neuroscience 31(1) 32\u201359. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1080\/23273798.2015.1102299","DOI":"10.1080\/23273798.2015.1102299"},{"key":"e_1_3_5_19_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kutas M. Hillyard S. A. (1984). Brain potentials during reading reflect word expectancy and semantic association. Nature 307(5947) 161\u2013163. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1038\/307161a0","DOI":"10.1038\/307161a0"},{"key":"e_1_3_5_20_1","unstructured":"Lenth R. (2019). emmeans: Estimated marginal means aka least-squares means (Version 1.11.0) [Computer software]. https:\/\/CRAN.R-project.org\/package=emmeans"},{"key":"e_1_3_5_21_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Maris E. Oostenveld R. (2007). Nonparametric statistical testing of EEG- and MEG-data. Journal of Neuroscience Methods 164(1) 177\u2013190. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.jneumeth.2007.03.024","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jneumeth.2007.03.024"},{"key":"e_1_3_5_22_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Nota N. Trujillo J. P. Holler J. (2023). Conversational eyebrow frowns facilitate question identification: An online study using virtual avatars. Cognitive Science 47(12) Article e13392. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1111\/cogs.13392","DOI":"10.1111\/cogs.13392"},{"key":"e_1_3_5_23_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Obermeier C. Gunter T. C. (2015). Multisensory integration: The case of a time window of gesture\u2013speech integration. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience 27(2) 292\u2013307. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1162\/jocn_a_00688","DOI":"10.1162\/jocn_a_00688"},{"key":"e_1_3_5_24_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Obermeier C. Holle H. Gunter T. C. (2011). What iconic gesture fragments reveal about gesture\u2013speech integration: When synchrony is lost memory can help. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience 23(7) 1648\u20131663. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1162\/jocn.2010.21498","DOI":"10.1162\/jocn.2010.21498"},{"key":"e_1_3_5_25_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Oostenveld R. Fries P. Maris E. Schoffelen J.-M. (2010). FieldTrip: Open source software for advanced analysis of MEG EEG and invasive electrophysiological data. Computational Intelligence and Neuroscience 2011 Article 156869. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1155\/2011\/156869","DOI":"10.1155\/2011\/156869"},{"key":"e_1_3_5_26_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Osorio S. Straube B. Meyer L. He Y. (2024). The role of co-speech gestures in retrieval and prediction during naturalistic multimodal narrative processing. Language Cognition and Neuroscience 39(3) 367\u2013382. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1080\/23273798.2023.2295499","DOI":"10.1080\/23273798.2023.2295499"},{"key":"e_1_3_5_27_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"\u00d6zer D. G\u00f6ksun T. (2020). Gesture use and processing: A review on individual differences in cognitive resources. Frontiers in Psychology 11 Article 573555. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/fpsyg.2020.573555","DOI":"10.3389\/fpsyg.2020.573555"},{"key":"e_1_3_5_28_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Peeters D. (2019). Virtual reality: A game-changing method for the language sciences. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review 26(3) 894\u2013900. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3758\/s13423-019-01571-3","DOI":"10.3758\/s13423-019-01571-3"},{"key":"e_1_3_5_29_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Pickering M. J. Gambi C. (2018). Predicting while comprehending language: A theory and review. Psychological Bulletin 144(10) 1002\u20131044. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1037\/bul0000158","DOI":"10.1037\/bul0000158"},{"key":"e_1_3_5_30_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Prystauka Y. Lewis A. G. (2019). The power of neural oscillations to inform sentence comprehension: A linguistic perspective. Language and Linguistics Compass 13(9) Article e12347. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1111\/lnc3.12347","DOI":"10.1111\/lnc3.12347"},{"key":"e_1_3_5_31_1","unstructured":"R Core Team. (2019). R: A language and environment for statistical computing (Version 4.3.1) [Computer software]. https:\/\/www.R-project.org"},{"key":"e_1_3_5_32_1","first-page":"266","volume-title":"Structures of social action: Studies in conversation analysis","author":"Schegloff E. A.","year":"1984","unstructured":"Schegloff E. A. (1984). On some gestures\u2019 relation to talk. In Atkinson J. M., Heritage J. (Eds.), Structures of social action: Studies in conversation analysis (pp. 266\u2013296). Cambridge University Press."},{"key":"e_1_3_5_33_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Silverman L. B. Bennetto L. Campana E. Tanenhaus M. K. (2010). Speech-and-gesture integration in high functioning autism. Cognition 115(3) 380\u2013393. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.cognition.2010.01.002","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cognition.2010.01.002"},{"key":"e_1_3_5_34_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Skipper J. I. (2014). Echoes of the spoken past: How auditory cortex hears context during speech perception. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences 369(1651) Article 20130297. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1098\/rstb.2013.0297","DOI":"10.1098\/rstb.2013.0297"},{"key":"e_1_3_5_35_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"ter Bekke M. Drijvers L. Holler J. (2024a). Gestures speed up responses to questions. Language Cognition and Neuroscience 39(4) 423\u2013430. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1080\/23273798.2024.2314021","DOI":"10.1080\/23273798.2024.2314021"},{"key":"e_1_3_5_36_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"ter Bekke M. Drijvers L. Holler J. (2024b). Hand gestures have predictive potential during conversation: An investigation of the timing of gestures in relation to speech. Cognitive Science 48(1) Article e13407. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1111\/cogs.13407","DOI":"10.1111\/cogs.13407"},{"key":"e_1_3_5_37_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Terporten R. Schoffelen J.-M. Dai B. Hagoort P. K\u00f6sem A. (2019). The relation between alpha\/beta oscillations and the encoding of sentence induced contextual information. Scientific Reports 9 Article 20255. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1038\/s41598-019-56600-x","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-019-56600-x"},{"key":"e_1_3_5_38_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Trujillo J. P. Holler J. (2023). Interactionally embedded gestalt principles of multimodal human communication. Perspectives on Psychological Science 18(5) 1136\u20131159. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1177\/17456916221141422","DOI":"10.1177\/17456916221141422"},{"key":"e_1_3_5_39_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Trujillo J. P. Holler J. (2024). Conversational facial signals combine into compositional meanings that change the interpretation of speaker intentions. Scientific Reports 14(1) 2286. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1038\/s41598-024-52589-0","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-024-52589-0"},{"key":"e_1_3_5_40_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"van Paridon J. Thompson B. (2021). subs2vec: Word embeddings from subtitles in 55 languages. Behavior Research Methods 53(2) 629\u2013655. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3758\/s13428-020-01406-3","DOI":"10.3758\/s13428-020-01406-3"},{"key":"e_1_3_5_41_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wang L. Hagoort P. Jensen O. (2018). Language prediction is reflected by coupling between frontal gamma and posterior alpha oscillations. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience 30(3) 432\u2013447. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1162\/jocn_a_01190","DOI":"10.1162\/jocn_a_01190"},{"key":"e_1_3_5_42_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wu Y. C. Coulson S. (2010). Gestures modulate speech processing early in utterances. NeuroReport 21(7) 522\u2013526. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1097\/WNR.0b013e32833904bb","DOI":"10.1097\/WNR.0b013e32833904bb"},{"key":"e_1_3_5_43_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zhang Y. Frassinelli D. Tuomainen J. Skipper J. I. Vigliocco G. (2021). More than words: Word predictability prosody gesture and mouth movements in natural language comprehension. Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences 288(1955) Article 20210500. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1098\/rspb.2021.0500","DOI":"10.1098\/rspb.2021.0500"}],"container-title":["Psychological Science"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/journals.sagepub.com\/doi\/pdf\/10.1177\/09567976251331041","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/journals.sagepub.com\/doi\/full-xml\/10.1177\/09567976251331041","content-type":"application\/xml","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/journals.sagepub.com\/doi\/pdf\/10.1177\/09567976251331041","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,1]],"date-time":"2026-05-01T21:39:11Z","timestamp":1777671551000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/journals.sagepub.com\/doi\/10.1177\/09567976251331041"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2025,4]]},"references-count":42,"journal-issue":{"issue":"4","published-print":{"date-parts":[[2025,4]]}},"alternative-id":["10.1177\/09567976251331041"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1177\/09567976251331041","relation":{"has-review":[{"id-type":"doi","id":"10.1177\/09567976251331041\/v2\/response1","asserted-by":"object"},{"id-type":"doi","id":"10.1177\/09567976251331041\/v1\/decision1","asserted-by":"object"},{"id-type":"doi","id":"10.1177\/09567976251331041\/v1\/review3","asserted-by":"object"},{"id-type":"doi","id":"10.1177\/09567976251331041\/v3\/decision1","asserted-by":"object"},{"id-type":"doi","id":"10.1177\/09567976251331041\/v2\/review1","asserted-by":"object"},{"id-type":"doi","id":"10.1177\/09567976251331041\/v3\/response1","asserted-by":"object"},{"id-type":"doi","id":"10.1177\/09567976251331041\/v2\/decision1","asserted-by":"object"},{"id-type":"doi","id":"10.1177\/09567976251331041\/v2\/review2","asserted-by":"object"},{"id-type":"doi","id":"10.1177\/09567976251331041\/v1\/review1","asserted-by":"object"},{"id-type":"doi","id":"10.1177\/09567976251331041\/v2\/review3","asserted-by":"object"},{"id-type":"doi","id":"10.1177\/09567976251331041\/v1\/review2","asserted-by":"object"}]},"ISSN":["0956-7976","1467-9280"],"issn-type":[{"value":"0956-7976","type":"print"},{"value":"1467-9280","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2025,4]]}}}