{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2025,3,3]],"date-time":"2025-03-03T06:01:21Z","timestamp":1740981681406,"version":"3.38.0"},"reference-count":99,"publisher":"SAGE Publications","issue":"4","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2003,10,1]],"date-time":"2003-10-01T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1064966400000},"content-version":"tdm","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/journals.sagepub.com\/page\/policies\/text-and-data-mining-license"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Public Underst Sci"],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2003,10]]},"abstract":"<jats:p> This article examines the reasons for, and likely impact of, the decision by the US and other countries to permanently defer blood donors who have spent time in Britain or Europe, for fear they may transmit new variant Creutzfeldt\u2013Jakob disease (vCJD), the human form of \u201cmad cow disease.\u201d It begins by discussing how vCJD and blood transfusion are linked, and how these have been translated into policy. First, maintaining a safe and stable supply of blood entails not only maintaining the trust of recipients in the system, but also that of donors, who need to be assured that their blood will be welcomed and used. Often, the balance, once upset, is regained by sacrificing donors, but accompanying costs might also be high. Second, the article highlights the impact of various forms of globalization\u2014of commerce, disease and travel, and immigration\u2014on blood policies and public and policy attitudes. Third, it assesses the decision by the US to restrict blood donations from Europeans and travelers to combat such a pervasive risk. The conclusion discusses how donor deferral policies may be interpreted by the public in the light of earlier discussions, and raises issues for future research. <\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1177\/0963662503124003","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2004,4,21]],"date-time":"2004-04-21T23:52:37Z","timestamp":1082591557000},"page":"359-380","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":10,"title":["A Vital Fluid: Risk, Controversy and the Politics of Blood Donation in the                Era of \u201cMad Cow Disease\u201d"],"prefix":"10.1177","volume":"12","author":[{"given":"Kate","family":"O\u2019Neill","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Environmental Science, Policy and Management at the                        University of California at Berkeley"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"179","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2003,10,1]]},"reference":[{"key":"atypb1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"1 Scott Gottlieb, \u201cFDA bans blood donation by people who have lived in UK,\u201d British Medical Journal 319, no. 7209 (1999): 535-535 .","DOI":"10.1136\/bmj.319.7209.535"},{"key":"atypb2","unstructured":"2 US FDA Center for Biologics Evaluation and Research (CBER), \u201cGuidance for industry: revised preventive measures to reduce the possible risk of transmission of Creutzfeld\u2013Jakob Disease (CJD) and Variant Creutzfeld\u2013Jakob disease (vCJD) by blood and blood products,\u201d (2002) (http:\/\/www.fda.gov\/cber\/bse\/bse.htm, accessed 10 March 2003). All but one of the 74 America\u2019s Blood Centers members have implemented these recommendations, and the American Red Cross has gone the furthest: anyone who has spent three months or more in Britain, or six months or more in any European country from 1980 to the present. See Deborah Josefson, \u201cUS worried as restrictions on blood donors tighten,\u201d British Medical Journal 323 (1 September 2001): 469-469."},{"key":"atypb3","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1088\/0963-6625\/6\/3\/002"},{"key":"atypb4","unstructured":"4 Blood Safety \u2026 for Too Few, WHO Press Release, WHO\/25 (7 April 2000)."},{"key":"atypb5","unstructured":"5 Jessie Saul, \u201cTainted blood: risk, safety, and civic dislocation in the case of the contamination of the blood supplies of France and the United States with AIDS,\u201d paper presented at the 2001 Meeting of the Society for the Social Studies of Science, Boston, MA."},{"key":"atypb6","unstructured":"6 Richard M. Titmuss et al., The Gift Relationship: From Human Blood to Social Policy, Expanded and Updated Edition ( New York: The New Press , 1997); Gilbert Gaul and Mary Pat Flaherty, \u201cRed Cross accused of letting blood go to waste,\u201d Sydney Morning Herald and Washington Post (13 November 2001)"},{"key":"atypb7","unstructured":"7 Sherry Sheethaler, \u201cIn the face of uncertainty: batty bovines and empty blood banks,\u201d Berkeley Science Review 3, no. 1 (2003): 44\u201344 ."},{"key":"atypb8","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1539-6924.1993.tb01329.x"},{"key":"atypb9","unstructured":"9 For example, many major newspapers and radio programs have carried stories on the issue. Popular science journals have also provided a bridge between the expert community and the general public on both vCJD and blood supply issues. Finally, private citizens have set up their own news sites on this subject. See, for example, http:\/\/hometown.aol.com\/debbieoney\/blood.htm (a support network for people who may have received \u201cclassic\u201d CJD-tainted blood; accessed 10 March 2003)."},{"key":"atypb10","unstructured":"10 Richard Rhodes, Deadly Feasts: The \u201cPrion\u201d Controversy and the Public\u2019s Health ( New York: Touchstone Books , 1997)."},{"key":"atypb11","unstructured":"11 \u201cNo sign people get brain disease from blood \u2013 experts,\u201d Reuters (October 7, 1997)."},{"key":"atypb12","unstructured":"12 Report of a WHO Consultation on Medicinal and other Products in Relation to Human and Animal Transmissible Spongiform Encephalopathies, WHO (March 1997)."},{"key":"atypb13","unstructured":"13 New Variant CJD: Fact Sheet, National Center for Infectious Diseases (www.cdc.gov\/ncidod\/diseases\/cjd\/cjd_fact_sheet.htm, accessed 10 March 2003)."},{"key":"atypb14","unstructured":"14 Alison McCook, \u201cCDC details Florida case of human \u2018mad cow\u2019 disease,\u201d Reuters (17 October 2002)."},{"key":"atypb15","unstructured":"15 Monthly Creutzfeld\u2013Jakob Disease Statistics, UK Department of Health, 3 March 2003 (http:\/\/www.doh.gov.uk\/cjd\/cjd_stat.htm, accessed 10 March 2003)."},{"key":"atypb16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"16 On the prion-virus controversy, see Rhodes, Deadly Feasts (afterword), and Gretchen Vogel, \u201cPrusiner recognized for once-heretical prion theory,\u201d Science 278, no. 5336 (10 October 1997).","DOI":"10.1126\/science.278.5336.214"},{"key":"atypb17","unstructured":"17 Variant CJD, WHO Fact Sheet 180, revised November 2002, (http:\/\/www.who.int\/mediacentre\/factsheets\/fs180\/en\/, accessed 10 March 2003)."},{"key":"atypb18","unstructured":"18 Jasanoff, \u201cCivilization and Madness\u201d (cit. no. 3)."},{"key":"atypb19","unstructured":"19 David Brown, \u201cHuman version of \u2018mad cow\u2019 on rise; increase reflects delay of symptoms, not new cases, British expert says,\u201d The Washington Post (28 March 2002)."},{"key":"atypb20","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/35020688"},{"key":"atypb21","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/nature709"},{"key":"atypb22","unstructured":"22 \u201cMad cow concern shifts to blood supply \u2013 scientist,\u201d Reuters (11 March 1998)."},{"key":"atypb23","unstructured":"23 James Meikle, \u201cvCJD may have been passed on in blood,\u201d The Guardian (29 January 2002)."},{"key":"atypb24","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(00)02719-7"},{"key":"atypb25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"25 As the study has continued, four more sheep are, or appear to be, infected. According to the research team in 2002, if this trend continues, the study indicates an infection rate through transfusion of up to 17%. See Emma Young, \u201cvCJD risk from blood transfusion \u2018appreciable\u2019,\u201d New Scientist (5 August 2002), a discussion of Nora Hunter et al. \u201cTransmission of prion diseases by blood transfusion,\u201d Journal of General Virology 83 (2002): 2897\u20132905. In Britain, the publication of this report significantly upgraded the blood transfusion risk, according to the scientific establishment (James Meikle, \u201cTests Reveal CJD Blood Risk,\u201d The Guardian (3 August 2002)).","DOI":"10.1099\/0022-1317-83-11-2897"},{"key":"atypb26","unstructured":"26 \u201cBritain to purify blood to remove CJD risk,\u201d Reuters (17 July 1998)."},{"key":"atypb27","unstructured":"27 \u201cCJD link to blood Britain sold abroad,\u201d The Guardian (5 February 2001)."},{"key":"atypb28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"28 \u201cMaking blood safer,\u201d British Medical Journal (24 August 2002): 400\u2013401 ; Staff and Agencies, \u201cNHS pays \u00a350m for US Blood Plasma Firm,\u201d The Guardian (17 December 2002). The same article reports that the Department of Health is considering banning people who had previously had transfusions from giving blood.","DOI":"10.1136\/bmj.325.7361.400"},{"key":"atypb29","unstructured":"29 Oliver Wright, \u201cHemophiliac refuses surgery in vCJD protest\u201d The Times ( London ) (15 February 2001)."},{"key":"atypb30","unstructured":"30 James Meikle, \u201cBlood supplies \u2018could be halved\u2019 as donors fear results of vCJD tests,\u201d The Guardian (2 October 2001)."},{"key":"atypb31","unstructured":"31 The most common form of blood donation in the US is allogeneic donation, i.e. for the use of others. Other forms include autologous (self-donation for one\u2019s own need), and directed (for the use of a friend or family member). These sorts of donations have declined after a brief peak in the US in the 1980s, due to fear of contamination of HIV, following the development of better screening techniques. However, they remain common in poorer countries. See WHO, Blood Transfusion Safety, Global Database on Blood Safety, Summary Report, 1998\u20131999."},{"key":"atypb32","unstructured":"32 Comprehensive Report on Blood Collection and Transfusion in the United States in 1999, NBDRC, released 2001. A similar report issued by the General Accounting Office is more optimistic in its assessment of future trends but also notes the decline in supply. See Blood Supply: Ability of Blood to Meet the Nation\u2019s Requirements, US GAO report released 20 September 1999."},{"key":"atypb33","unstructured":"33 US Blood Supply Trends Through December 2001, NBDRC (http:\/\/www.nbdrc.org\/news\/2002\/trendsupdate.htm, accessed 10 March 2003)."},{"key":"atypb34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"34 Gottlieb, \u201cFDA Bans Blood Transfusion,\u201d and Wayne Kondro, \u201cCanada blood-donation prohibition for UK visitors,\u201d The Lancet 353, no. 9166 (22 May 1999).","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(05)75884-0"},{"key":"atypb35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"35 Sarah Ramsey et al. \u201cVariant CJD fears prompt growing number of countries to ban British blood donations,\u201d The Lancet 354 no. 9180 (28 August 1999): 754-754 . This represents a loss of about 15,000 pints, or units, of blood each year.","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(05)76002-5"},{"key":"atypb36","unstructured":"36 Josefson, \u201cUS worried as restrictions on blood donors tighten,\u201d (cit. no. 2)."},{"key":"atypb37","unstructured":"37 Questions and Answers on FDA Guidance Entitled \u2018Revised Preventive Measures to Reduce the possible risk of Transmission of Creutzfeldt\u2013Jakob Disease and Variant Creutzfeldt\u2013Jakob Disease by Blood and Blood Products\u2019 (http:\/\/www.fda.gov\/cber\/gdlns\/cjdvcjdq&a.htm, accessed 10 March 2003). So far, there have been seven reported cases of cattle with BSE in Japan (New York Times, 24 January 2003)."},{"key":"atypb38","unstructured":"38 Staff, \u201cBay Area blood banks need donors: \u2018Mad Cow\u2019 risk creates shortage,\u201d The San Francisco Chronicle (15 January 2003); Additional blood donor guidelines going into effect October 31; America\u2019s Blood Centers Could Lose Thousands More Donations, press release from America\u2019s Blood Centers (31 October 2002) (http:\/\/www.americasblood.org, accessed 10 March 2003); \u201cUS blood supply unusually low,\u201d Morning Edition, National Public Radio (27 August 2002) (interview with J.B. Gaskins, president of Florida Blood Services)."},{"key":"atypb39","unstructured":"39 Keith Parsons, \u201cGa. Red Cross Issues Blood Quarantine,\u201d Associated Press (31 January 2003) (on the occasion of \u201cwhite particulate matter\u201d being found in blood products); news item on Public Radio International\u2019s The World, 5 March 2003, on the US military\u2019s blood supplies going into Iraq, and \u201cUS blood supply unusually low,\u201d NPR transcript."},{"key":"atypb40","unstructured":"40 Lisa Bloch, spokeswoman for Blood Centers of the Pacific, quoted in \u201cBay Area Blood Banks,\u201d San Francisco Chronicle (15 January 2003)."},{"key":"atypb41","unstructured":"41 Blood Donor Deferral Facts Sheet Number 1, Australian Department of Health (http:\/\/www.health.gov.au\/pubhlth\/strateg\/bse\/response.htm, accessed 10 March 2003)."},{"key":"atypb42","unstructured":"42 \u201cRed Cross denies \u2018mad cow\u2019 blood ban,\u201d The Age ( Melbourne ) (18 July 2000); \u2018\u201cMad Cow\u2019 fear raises blood ban,\u201d The Age (19 July 2000)."},{"key":"atypb43","unstructured":"43 Judith Whelan, \u201cHigh Blood Pressure as Mad Cow Takes a Toll,\u201d The Sydney Morning Herald (25 May 2001)."},{"key":"atypb44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"44 Doug Payne, \u201cIreland fears blood shortage with new ban on donors,\u201d British Medical Journal (1 September 2001): 469-469 .","DOI":"10.1136\/bmj.323.7311.469"},{"key":"atypb45","unstructured":"45 Saul, \u201cTainted Blood\u201d (cit. no. 5)."},{"key":"atypb46","unstructured":"46 For example, in February 2003, surgeons in North Carolina accidentally gave a young girl heart and lungs of the wrong blood type, and the girl subsequently died. It is not clear where in the chain of communication this mistake was made."},{"key":"atypb47","unstructured":"47 BSE is, in the eyes of some, only one of the problems affecting the US meat supply. See Eric Schlosser, Fast Food Nation: the Dark Side of the American Meal (Boston: Houghton-Mifflin, 2001)."},{"key":"atypb48","unstructured":"48 There is a large literature on the role of HIV and AIDS in transfusion medicine. See, for instance, Eric A. Feldman and Ronald Bayer (eds), Blood Feuds: AIDS, Blood and the Politics of Medical Disaster ( Oxford: Oxford University Press , 1999), Saul, \u201cTainted Blood\u201d (cit. no. 5), and Penny Chan, \u201cBlood, risk, and stigma\u201d in Risk, Media, and Stigma: Understanding Public Challenges to Modern Science and Technology, eds J. Flynn, et al. (London: Earthscan, 2001): 229\u2013240 for overviews."},{"key":"atypb49","unstructured":"49 Paul Farmer, AIDS and Accusation: Haiti and the Geography of Blame ( Berkeley: University of California Press , 1992)."},{"key":"atypb50","unstructured":"50 Meikle, \u201cBlood supplies \u2018could be halved\u2019 as donors fear results of vCJD tests\u201d (cit. no. 30)."},{"key":"atypb51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"51 Most recently, West Nile virus has been transmitted through infected blood (Fred Charlatan, \u201cOrgan transplants and blood transfusions may transmit West Nile virus,\u201d British Medical Journal (14 September 2002): 566-566 ).","DOI":"10.1136\/bmj.325.7364.566\/a"},{"key":"atypb52","unstructured":"52 Douglas Starr, Blood: an Epic History of Medicine and Commerce ( New York: Alfred A. Knopf , 1999)."},{"key":"atypb53","unstructured":"53 Ibid., chapter 14."},{"key":"atypb54","unstructured":"54 Ibid., pp. 258\u2013259, 351; although the configuration of major players changed after the AIDS\/HIV blood scandals broke."},{"key":"atypb55","unstructured":"55 See http:\/\/www.who.int\/en\/and http:\/\/www.ifrc.org (both accessed 10 March 2003)."},{"key":"atypb56","unstructured":"56 Starr, Blood; Andrew Kimbrell, \u201cBiocolonization: the patenting of life and the global market in body parts,\u201d in The Case Against the Global Economy and For a Turn Toward the Local, eds. J. Mander and E. Goldsmith ( San Francisco: Sierra Club Books , 1996)."},{"key":"atypb57","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1353\/sais.2002.0022"},{"key":"atypb58","unstructured":"58 Josefson, \u201cUS worried as restrictions on blood donors tighten,\u201d (cit. no. 2)."},{"key":"atypb59","unstructured":"59 Feldman and Bayer, Blood Feuds (cit. no. 48)."},{"key":"atypb60","unstructured":"60 John Warden, \u201cUK blood products are banned,\u201d British Medical Journal (7 March 1998). On the blow to Britain\u2019s hard-earned self-sufficiency, see Starr, Blood, p. 354-354 ."},{"key":"atypb61","unstructured":"61 For recent work on the history and emergence of new international diseases, including CJD, see Rhodes, Deadly Feasts (cit. no. 10) and Laurie Garrett, The Coming Plague: Newly Emerging Diseases in a World Out of Balance (New York: Farrar, Strauss and Giroux, 1994). In the arena of popular culture, see Richard Preston, The Hot Zone (New York: Random House, 1994) and, for instance, \u201cMore Buzz than Bite,\u201d People Magazine (21 August 2000): 113\u2013114."},{"key":"atypb62","unstructured":"62 Garrett, The Coming Plague."},{"key":"atypb63","unstructured":"63 Andrew T. Price-Smith, The Health of Nations: Infectious Disease, Environmental Change and Their Effects on National Security And Development ( Cambridge: MIT Press , 2002); Laurie Garrett, Betrayal of Trust: The Collapse of Global Public Health (New York: Hyperion, 2000)."},{"key":"atypb64","unstructured":"64 For data on this epidemic, see the Joint UN Programme on HIV\/AIDS (http:\/\/www.unaids.org, accessed 10 March 2003)"},{"key":"atypb65","unstructured":"65 For an overview of blood\u2019s symbolism as represented in the art world, see James M. Bradburne, ed., Blood: Art, Power, Politics and Pathology ( Munich: Prestel , 2001)."},{"key":"atypb66","unstructured":"66 See Donna J. Haraway, \u201cRace: universal donors in a vampire culture,\u201d in Modest_Witness@Second_ Millennium.FemaleMan\u00a9_Meets_OncoMouse\u2122: Feminism and Technoscience ( London: Routledge , 1997)."},{"key":"atypb67","unstructured":"67 According to the American Red Cross, you are ineligible to give blood if \u201cyou were born or lived in Cameroon, Central African Republic, Chad, Congo, Equatorial guinea, Gabon, Niger or Nigeria since 1977\u201d(http:\/\/www.redcross.org\/services\/biomed\/0,1082,0_557_,00.html, accessed 10 March 2003)."},{"key":"atypb68","unstructured":"68 Mary Curtis, \u201cProtestors attack blood policy; angry Ethiopian Jews see racism in Israel\u2019s fear of HIV,\u201d Los Angeles Times (29 January 1996)."},{"key":"atypb69","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(97)10356-7"},{"key":"atypb70","unstructured":"70 See OTTI Travel and Tourism Research Programs (http:\/\/www.tinet.ita.doc.gov\/research\/index.html, accessed 10 March 2003)."},{"key":"atypb71","unstructured":"71 Ulrich Beck, World Risk Society ( Cambridge: Polity Press , 1999), 48-48."},{"key":"atypb72","unstructured":"72 Ibid., p. 19."},{"key":"atypb73","unstructured":"73 Robin Gregory et al. \u201cTechnological stigma,\u201d in Risk, Media, and Stigma, eds Flynn et al. ( London: Earthscan , 2001): 3\u20138."},{"key":"atypb74","unstructured":"74 Starr, Blood (cit. no. 52)."},{"key":"atypb75","unstructured":"75 America\u2019s Blood Centers cites accidents, burns, bone marrow transplants, organ transplants, burns, and heart surgery as examples of when blood transfusion is commonly used."},{"key":"atypb76","unstructured":"76 See Feldman and Bayer, Blood Feuds (cit. no. 48), for this argument. For other works on comparative blood donation politics, see Starr, Blood, and Piet J. Hagen, Blood Transfusion in Europe: a \u201cWhite\u201d Paper (Strasbourg: Council of Europe Press, 1993)."},{"key":"atypb77","unstructured":"77 See W.N. Gibbs and A.F.H. Britten, eds, Guidelines for the Organization of a Blood Transfusion System (Geneva: WHO, 1992)."},{"key":"atypb78","unstructured":"78 Christine Gorman, \u201cPost-traumatic infection: some who donated blood on September 11 are discovering they have hepatitis,\u201d Time Magazine 158, no. 17 (15 October 2001): 106-106 ."},{"key":"atypb79","unstructured":"79 Therefore the system relies on stored products and specially collected plasma units (http:\/\/www.aabb.org\/All_About_Blood\/FAQs\/aabb_faqs.htm, accessed 10 March 2003)."},{"key":"atypb80","unstructured":"80 See Robert G. Westphal, \u201cInternational perspectives on blood availability,\u201d in Blood Donors and the Supply of Blood and Blood Products, pp. 25\u201330, eds Frederick J. Manning and Linette Sparacino (Forum on Blood Safety and Blood Availability, Division of Health Sciences Policy, Institute of Medicine, Washington: National Academy Press, 1996) and Sean French, \u201cOnly those with pitifully dull lives can give blood these days,\u201d The New Statesman 127, no. 4389 (June 1998)."},{"key":"atypb81","unstructured":"81 Vanessa Martlew, \u201cTransfusion medicine towards the millennium,\u201d in Titmuss et al., Gift Relationship ( New York: The New Press , 1997), 49-49."},{"key":"atypb82","unstructured":"82 Although essentially a wider treatise about social policy, in The Gift Relationship, Titmuss demonstrated that the US system, at that time run on a commercial, paid basis, was far less efficient\u2014more costly, more blood wasted\u2014than the British system, based entirely on altruistic donation by anonymous donors. Titmuss also highlighted the adverse selection problems of a paid donor system: the pool of donors tended to be the people most likely to transmit infectious diseases, and most likely to be destitute and\/or addicted to drugs or alcohol. This book, and the publicity it received, was instrumental in the US move to a more voluntary system."},{"key":"atypb83","unstructured":"83 The term \u201cBlood Establishment\u201d is used by the FDA in its guidelines about blood donation, deferral, and screening to refer to the agencies (private and non-profit) who collect and distribute blood."},{"key":"atypb84","unstructured":"84 L\u00f6fstedt and Frewer, Risk and Modern Society (cit. no. 8)."},{"key":"atypb85","unstructured":"85 See Westphal, \u201cInternational perspectives on blood availability\u201d (cit. no. 80)."},{"key":"atypb86","unstructured":"86 \u201cDonated blood wasted in Sept. 11 aftermath,\u201d Reuters (20 February 2002)."},{"key":"atypb87","unstructured":"87 \u201cBlood and Money,\u201d interview with Jim McPherson, Executive Director of America\u2019s Blood Centers, on PBS\u2019 News Hour with Jim Lehrer, 19 December 2001."},{"key":"atypb88","unstructured":"88 Russ Buettner, \u201cRed Cross may trash 20% of donated blood,\u201d New York Daily News (12 November 2001), quoting blood donor Helene Pincus."},{"key":"atypb89","unstructured":"89 http:\/\/www.nbdrc.org\/news\/2002\/collectedapr2002.htm, accessed 10 March 2003."},{"key":"atypb90","unstructured":"90 See cit. no. 2."},{"key":"atypb91","unstructured":"91 For instance, Mad Cow Disease: Improvements in the Animal Feed Ban and Other Regulatory Areas would Strengthen US Preventive Measures. United States General Accounting Office Report to Congressional Requesters, GAO-02\u2013183 (January 2002), and Evaluation of the Potential for Bovine Spongiform Encephalopathy in the United States. Harvard Center for Risk Analysis, Harvard University and the Center for Computational Epidemiology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Tuskegee University (26 November 2001)."},{"key":"atypb92","unstructured":"92 Evaluation of the Potential for Bovine Spongiform Encephalopathy in the United States. Executive Summary, Harvard Center for Risk Analysis, 1."},{"key":"atypb93","unstructured":"93 For critics of the official US stance, see Sheldon Rampton and John Stauber, Mad Cow U.S.A.: Could the Nightmare Happen Here? (Monroe, Maine: Common Courage Press, 1997). Opposition reports are collected on the Organic Consumer\u2019s Association website (http:\/\/OrganicConsumers.org\/madcow.htm, accessed 10 March 2003)."},{"key":"atypb94","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"94 See Ronald Brickman et al. (eds), Controlling Chemicals: the Politics of Regulation in Europe and the United States ( Ithaca: Cornell University Press , 1985), and, more recently, David Vogel, \u201cThe Hare and the Tortoise Revisited: the New Politics of Consumer and Environmental Regulation in Europe,\u201d British Journal of Political Science 33 (2003), 557\u2013580, and Robert A. Kagan and Lee Axelrad (eds) Regulatory Encounters: Multinational Corporations and American Adversarial Legalism (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2000).","DOI":"10.1017\/S0007123403000255"},{"key":"atypb95","unstructured":"95 On the precautionary principle, see Carolyn Raffensperger and Joel Tickner (eds) Protecting Public Health and the Environment: Implementing the Precautionary Principle ( Washington, DC: Island Press , 1999) and Ronnie Harding and Elizabeth Fisher (eds) Perspectives on the Precautionary Principle (Sydney: Federation Press, 1999). The US opposition to use of the precautionary principle as a principle of international law, as opposed to \u201csound science,\u201d has been at the center of many international environmental negotiations, for example over climate change and biosafety."},{"key":"atypb96","unstructured":"96 Streamlining the Donor Interview Process: Recommendations for Self-Administered Questionnaires, Draft Guidance for Industry, US FDA Center for Biologics Evaluation and Research (April 2002)."},{"key":"atypb97","unstructured":"97 Sheethaler, \u201cIn the face of uncertainty\u201d (cit. no. 7)."},{"key":"atypb98","unstructured":"98 Liam Callanan, \u201cNew FDA guidelines prevent more people from giving blood,\u201d commentary on the Morning Edition, National Public Radio (5 June 2002)."},{"key":"atypb99","unstructured":"99 On the capacities of the WHO, see Garrett, Betrayal of Trust (cit. no. 63)."}],"container-title":["Public Understanding of Science"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/journals.sagepub.com\/doi\/pdf\/10.1177\/0963662503124003","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/journals.sagepub.com\/doi\/pdf\/10.1177\/0963662503124003","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,3,3]],"date-time":"2025-03-03T02:12:57Z","timestamp":1740967977000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/journals.sagepub.com\/doi\/10.1177\/0963662503124003"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2003,10]]},"references-count":99,"journal-issue":{"issue":"4","published-print":{"date-parts":[[2003,10]]}},"alternative-id":["10.1177\/0963662503124003"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1177\/0963662503124003","relation":{},"ISSN":["0963-6625","1361-6609"],"issn-type":[{"type":"print","value":"0963-6625"},{"type":"electronic","value":"1361-6609"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2003,10]]}}}