{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,4]],"date-time":"2026-05-04T00:45:00Z","timestamp":1777855500328,"version":"3.51.4"},"reference-count":65,"publisher":"SAGE Publications","issue":"3","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2019,11,3]],"date-time":"2019-11-03T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1572739200000},"content-version":"tdm","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/journals.sagepub.com\/page\/policies\/text-and-data-mining-license"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["journals.sagepub.com"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["J Med Biogr"],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2021,8]]},"abstract":"<jats:p>A founder of paleopathology, the study of disease in ancient human remains, Sir Marc Armand Ruffer, MD (1859\u20131917) served in Egypt, from 1896 to 1917, as a public-health administrator, epidemiologist, and pathologist. He was professor of Bacteriology at the Cairo Medical School, President of the Sanitary, Maritime, and Quarantine Council, member of the Indian Plague Commission, and author or co-author of 40 papers in palaeopathology. However, little is known of his early professional life, which encompassed his education, medical training, and research in England and France. The pre-Egyptian period, 1878 to 1896, was a time of extraordinary activity. Acquiring four academic Degrees at Oxford University and clinical experience at the University College Hospital, London (1878\u20131889), he was the clinical assistant of Louis Pasteur during the anti-rabies campaign (autumn 1889), interim President of the British Institute of Preventive Medicine (1893\u20131896), and immunology researcher (1890\u20131895), in London and Paris, under the guidance of \u00c9lie Metchnikoff (1845\u20131916). Ruffer developed the diphtheria antitoxin in Britain. In addition to a dissertation on hydrocephalus, he composed or co-authored 34 papers. A prolific writer, linguist, clinician, and administrator, he explored several medical sub-disciplines before concentrating on palaeopathology.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1177\/0967772019883998","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2019,11,4]],"date-time":"2019-11-04T00:05:20Z","timestamp":1572825920000},"page":"169-175","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1177\/sage-journals-update-policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":1,"title":["Sir Marc Armand Ruffer, MD: The early years, 1878\u20131896"],"prefix":"10.1177","volume":"29","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-0697-7862","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Charles","family":"DePaolo","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Borough of Manhattan Community College, NY, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"179","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2019,11,3]]},"reference":[{"key":"bibr1-0967772019883998","unstructured":"Aufderheide AC and Rodr\u03afguez-Martin C. (eds)\n                      The Cambridge History of Human Paleopathology.\n                      Cambridge: Cambridge, University Press, 1995, pp.5\u20136."},{"key":"bibr2-0967772019883998","unstructured":"Sir Marc Armand Ruffer. CMG, MA., MD, Oxon. (1859\u20131917).\n                      BMJ\n                      1917; 1: 602; Plimmer HG. Sir Armand Ruffer, CMG.\n                      Nature (London)\n                      1917; 99: 209\u2013210; Marc Armand Ruffer, Kt, CMG, MA, MD, Oxon., FLS.\n                      The Lancet\n                      , 1917; 189: 774\u2013775; Garrison FH. Memorial notice: Sir Marc Armand Ruffer.\n                      Annals and Medical History\n                      1917; 1.2: 218\u2013220; Ritchie JR and Williamson JS. Sir Marc Armand Ruffer.\n                      J Pathol and Bacteriol\n                      1918\u20131919; 22: 401\u2013402; Sir Marc Armand Ruffer, CMG.\n                      International Association of Medical Museums Bulletin\n                      1922; 8: 241; Baker BJ and Judd MA. Development of paleopathology in the Nile Valley. In: J. E. Buikstra and C. Roberts (eds)\n                      The Global history of paleopathology: pioneers and prospects.\n                      New York: Oxford University Press, 2012, pp.209\u2013234; Ventura L. In memory of Sir Marc Armand Ruffer (1859\u20131917) a century after his demise.\n                      Paleopathology Newsletter\n                      2017; 180: 19\u201323."},{"key":"bibr3-0967772019883998","unstructured":"Moodie RL. Biographical sketch. In: Roy L. Moodie (ed.)\n                      Studies in the paleopathology of Egypt, by MA Ruffer.\n                      Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1921, pp.xiii\u2013xx."},{"key":"bibr4-0967772019883998","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1017\/S002572730001200X"},{"key":"bibr5-0967772019883998","first-page":"1389","volume":"124","author":"Swinton, WE","year":"1981","journal-title":"Canadian Medical Assoc J"},{"key":"bibr6-0967772019883998","unstructured":"Ruffer, Marc Armand (1859\u20131917), www.ancestry.com (accessed 15 June 2019)."},{"key":"bibr7-0967772019883998","unstructured":"University of Oxford. Student\u2019s Handbook., 9th ed. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1887\u20131888, pp. 201\u2013212. 340\u2013342, 395."},{"key":"bibr8-0967772019883998","unstructured":"University of Oxford. Brasenose College Register, 1509\u20131909\n                      . v. II\n                      , Oxford: B. H. Blackwell, 1909, pp. 159\u2013159."},{"key":"bibr9-0967772019883998","unstructured":"Regulations of the medical examining boards of the UK.\n                      The Lancet\n                      1880; 116: 414."},{"key":"bibr10-0967772019883998","volume-title":"Historical Register","author":"University of Oxford","year":"1900"},{"key":"bibr11-0967772019883998","unstructured":"General Council of medical education and registration of the UK.\n                      The Lancet\n                      1881; 118: 454."},{"key":"bibr12-0967772019883998","unstructured":"University of Oxford. Gazette.\n                      v. 13\n                      , Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1883, pp. 194\u2013194."},{"key":"bibr13-0967772019883998","unstructured":"University of Oxford. Gazette.\n                      v. 17\n                      , Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1887, pp. 573\u2013573."},{"key":"bibr14-0967772019883998","unstructured":"University of Oxford. Calendar, Oxford: J. H. Parker and H. S. Slatter, 1883, pp. 44\u201345. 57."},{"key":"bibr15-0967772019883998","first-page":"493","volume":"136","author":"University of Oxford","year":"1890","journal-title":"The Lancet"},{"key":"bibr16-0967772019883998","unstructured":"Ruffer, Marc Armand, MD, (Oxon.).\n                      Anglo-African who's who.\n                      Wills WH and Barrett RJ (eds) London: Routledge, 1905, p.137."},{"key":"bibr17-0967772019883998","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hours of attendance at the London hospitals.\n                      BMJ\n                      1887; 2: 539\u2013540.","DOI":"10.1136\/bmj.2.1392.539"},{"key":"bibr18-0967772019883998","unstructured":"University of Oxford. Examination statutes, Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1886, pp. 57\u201357."},{"key":"bibr19-0967772019883998","unstructured":"The Oxford Master of Arts Degree, www.oriel.ac.uk. (2018, accessed 7 June 2019)."},{"key":"bibr20-0967772019883998","unstructured":"University of Oxford. Examination decrees and regulations for the academic year 2005\u20132006, Oxford: Clarendon Press, 2005, pp. 563\u2013563."},{"key":"bibr21-0967772019883998","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"The\n                      Bacillus pyocyaneus\n                      in human pathology.\n                      JAMA\n                      1898; 31: 797\u2013798.","DOI":"10.1001\/jama.1898.02450140051005"},{"key":"bibr22-0967772019883998","unstructured":"Koch, R. Methods for the study of pathogenic organisms. In: Brock TD (ed. and trans.)\n                      Milestones in microbiology: 1546\u20131940.\n                      Washington, D.C.: American Society for Microbiology, 1999, pp.101\u2013108."},{"key":"bibr23-0967772019883998","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1189\/jlb.0712361"},{"key":"#cr-split#-bibr24-0967772019883998.1","unstructured":"Charrin A and Ruffer MA. Les mati\u00e9res solubles vaccinantes dans le sang des animaux. C R S\u00e9ances Soc Bio. v. 41. Paris: G. Masson, 1889, pp.121-123"},{"key":"#cr-split#-bibr24-0967772019883998.2","unstructured":"Charrin A and Ruffer MA. Influence du syst\u00e8me nerveux sur l'infection. C R S\u00e9ances Soc Bio. v. 41. Paris: G. Masson, 1889, pp.208-210."},{"key":"bibr25-0967772019883998","volume-title":"Gazette. v. 19","author":"University of Oxford","year":"1889"},{"key":"bibr26-0967772019883998","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1093\/brain\/13.1.117"},{"key":"bibr27-0967772019883998","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1093\/brain\/aws204"},{"key":"bibr28-0967772019883998","unstructured":"Kerslake F. Hydrophobia, its cause and prevention, London: Society for the Prevention of Hydrophobia, 1890, pp. 3\u20133."},{"key":"bibr29-0967772019883998","unstructured":"Roscoe HE. Life and experiences, London: Macmillan, 1906, pp. 316\u2013316."},{"key":"bibr30-0967772019883998","unstructured":"Pasteur L. Letter to J. J. Grancher, 7 June 1889. In:\n                      Correspondence de Pasteur: 1840\u20131895\n                      , v. 4 Paris: Flammarion, 1951, pp.292\u2013293."},{"key":"bibr31-0967772019883998","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1136\/bmj.1.1484.1269"},{"key":"bibr32-0967772019883998","author":"Pasteur L","journal-title":"The New Review"},{"key":"bibr33-0967772019883998","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1093\/jhmas\/39.3.356"},{"key":"#cr-split#-bibr34-0967772019883998.1","unstructured":"Pasteur L. Hydrophobia. Suzor R (trans.). London: Chatto & Windus, Piccadilly, 1887, pp.102-158"},{"key":"#cr-split#-bibr34-0967772019883998.2","unstructured":"Vallery-Radot R. The Life of Pasteur. v. II. Devonshire R L (trans.) New York: McClure, Phillips, 1902, pp.248-278."},{"key":"bibr35-0967772019883998","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1098\/rspa.1949.0001"},{"key":"bibr36-0967772019883998","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Pasteur Institute.\n                      BMJ\n                      1889; 2: 38\u201340.","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(02)10029-8"},{"key":"bibr37-0967772019883998","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1136\/bmj.2.1499.637"},{"key":"bibr38-0967772019883998","first-page":"31","volume":"38","author":"Ruffer MA","year":"1889","journal-title":"J Soc Arts"},{"key":"bibr39-0967772019883998","unstructured":"Chairman's Address.\n                      Proc Soc Arts\n                      1890; v. 39, 1: 6\u201313."},{"key":"bibr40-0967772019883998","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(02)04905-X"},{"key":"bibr41-0967772019883998","unstructured":"Medico-Chirurgical Transactions. R Med Chir Soc L.\n                      v. 75. London: Longmans, Green, 1892, p.lx."},{"key":"bibr42-0967772019883998","unstructured":"Proceedings of the Linnaean Society of London.\n                      London: Taylor and Francis, 1894, p.10."},{"key":"bibr43-0967772019883998","unstructured":"Transactions of the Pathological Society of London.\n                      London: Smith, Elder, 1890, p.23."},{"key":"bibr44-0967772019883998","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Directorship of the British Institute of Preventive Medicine.\n                      Nature\n                      1894\n                      ;\n                      49: 269.","DOI":"10.1038\/049269a0"},{"key":"bibr45-0967772019883998","unstructured":"The Hermite experiments at Worthing.\n                      The Surveyor and Municipal and County Engineer\n                      1894; 5: 344."},{"key":"bibr46-0967772019883998","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Appointment: Ruffer, Marc Armand.\n                      The Lancet\n                      . 135: 1049.","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(01)75206-3"},{"key":"bibr47-0967772019883998","unstructured":"Wilde P (ed.)\n                      International medical annual and practitioner's index.\n                      New York: E. B. Trent, 1892, p.x."},{"key":"bibr48-0967772019883998","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"The French Hospital: a munificent bequest.\n                      The Lancet\n                      1889; 133: 359.","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(00)30601-8"},{"key":"bibr49-0967772019883998","unstructured":"Rules and list of Office Bearers and Members of The Neurological Society of London.\n                      London: John Bale, 1897, p.17."},{"key":"bibr50-0967772019883998","first-page":"481","volume":"30","author":"Ruffer MA","year":"1890","journal-title":"Q J Microscop Sci"},{"key":"bibr51-0967772019883998","first-page":"99","volume":"32","author":"Ruffer MA","year":"1891","journal-title":"Q J of Microscop Sci"},{"key":"bibr52-0967772019883998","first-page":"417","volume":"32","author":"Ruffer MA","year":"1891","journal-title":"Q J Microscop Sci"},{"key":"bibr53-0967772019883998","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1136\/bmj.1.1534.1177"},{"key":"bibr54-0967772019883998","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1136\/bmj.2.1646.113"},{"key":"bibr55-0967772019883998","first-page":"209","volume":"44","author":"Ruffer MA","year":"1893","journal-title":"Trans Pathol Soc (London)"},{"key":"bibr56-0967772019883998","unstructured":"Ruffer MA (ed.).\n                      A series of illustrations of pathological anatomy\n                      , by Kast A and Rumpel T. London: Balli\u00e8re, Tindall, Cox, 1892."},{"key":"bibr57-0967772019883998","first-page":"215","volume":"19","author":"Haslam WD","year":"1895","journal-title":"Hosp (London)"},{"key":"bibr58-0967772019883998","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1136\/bmj.2.1773.1417"},{"key":"bibr59-0967772019883998","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sir Charles Sherrington and diphtheria antitoxin.\n                      Nature\n                      1948; 161: 266\u2013267.","DOI":"10.1038\/161266a0"},{"key":"bibr60-0967772019883998","first-page":"43","volume":"44","author":"Ruffer MA","year":"1895","journal-title":"Glasgow Medical Journal"},{"key":"bibr61-0967772019883998","unstructured":"Dr. Ruffer.\n                      BMJ\n                      6 July 1895; 2: 40."},{"key":"bibr62-0967772019883998","first-page":"157","volume":"2","author":"Ruffer MA","year":"1895","journal-title":"BMJ 20 July"},{"key":"bibr63-0967772019883998","unstructured":"British Institute of Preventive Medicine.\n                      BMJ\n                      1895; 2: 674."}],"container-title":["Journal of Medical Biography"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/journals.sagepub.com\/doi\/pdf\/10.1177\/0967772019883998","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/journals.sagepub.com\/doi\/full-xml\/10.1177\/0967772019883998","content-type":"application\/xml","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/journals.sagepub.com\/doi\/pdf\/10.1177\/0967772019883998","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,29]],"date-time":"2026-04-29T23:25:48Z","timestamp":1777505148000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/journals.sagepub.com\/doi\/10.1177\/0967772019883998"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2019,11,3]]},"references-count":65,"journal-issue":{"issue":"3","published-print":{"date-parts":[[2021,8]]}},"alternative-id":["10.1177\/0967772019883998"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1177\/0967772019883998","relation":{},"ISSN":["0967-7720","1758-1087"],"issn-type":[{"value":"0967-7720","type":"print"},{"value":"1758-1087","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2019,11,3]]}}}