{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,4]],"date-time":"2026-05-04T00:44:06Z","timestamp":1777855446582,"version":"3.51.4"},"reference-count":45,"publisher":"SAGE Publications","issue":"2","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2023,4,3]],"date-time":"2023-04-03T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1680480000000},"content-version":"tdm","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/journals.sagepub.com\/page\/policies\/text-and-data-mining-license"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["journals.sagepub.com"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["J Med Biogr"],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2024,5]]},"abstract":"<jats:p>Hideo Fukumi (1914\u20131998) is renowned for his position as the director of Japan's National Institute of Health and his scientific contributions to the fields of bacteriology, virology and epidemiology. This article introduces Fukumi's career cultivated over decades in the Japanese national medical system and focuses on his research on Shigella, Salmonella and influenza. Yet any assessment of his career also has to take into account the considerable controversy and scandal it engendered. This necessary reassessment situates Fukumi's contribution within what has been revealed of Japan's biological weapons programme which reached its zenith during the Second World War. Very few scientists, including Fukumi, were prosecuted for their roles in this programme. Contrarily, they became core personnel in post-war medical research due to the patronage of the United States\u2013Japan alliance in the context of the Cold War. Controversies that later surfaced over Fukumi's role in influenza immunisation campaigns reflect two currents of debate: A belated reckoning with Japan's use of biological weapons and the way this was \u2018normalised\u2019 and overlooked in the post-war period. The role of Japanese scholars and citizens\u2019 movements who have interrogated Japanese war crimes and the U.S. cover-ups and made a demand for greater ethical transparency in medical science.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1177\/09677720231167784","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2023,4,3]],"date-time":"2023-04-03T03:58:36Z","timestamp":1680494316000},"page":"194-204","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1177\/sage-journals-update-policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Hideo Fukumi: Medical research in the shadow of biological warfare"],"prefix":"10.1177","volume":"32","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-6460-1716","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Xianliang","family":"Dong","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Business, Economic and Public Policy Research Centre, Hong Kong Shue Yan University, North Point, Hong Kong"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"179","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,4,3]]},"reference":[{"key":"bibr1-09677720231167784","unstructured":"Kurozumi Medical Foundation. Fukumi Hideo Sensei nitsuite, ryakureki [A short biography of Fukumi Hideo], http:\/\/www.kmf.or.jp\/person\/about_fukumi.html (accessed 22 November 2022)."},{"key":"bibr2-09677720231167784","volume-title":"Influenza ry\u016bk\u014db\u014dshi Ni kansuru kenky\u016b [Research on the prevention of influenza pandemics]","author":"Japan, Ministry of Health and Welfare","year":"1987"},{"key":"bibr3-09677720231167784","volume-title":"Kikenna influenza yob\u014dsesshu [Dangerous influenza immunisation]","author":"K\u014dsei T","year":"1987"},{"key":"bibr4-09677720231167784","first-page":"6","volume":"5","author":"Shibata S","year":"1998","journal-title":"Inochi [Journal of Life]"},{"key":"bibr5-09677720231167784","unstructured":"National Institute of Infectious Diseases. Kokuritsu kansensh\u014d kenky\u016bjyo [An outline of National Institute of Infectious Diseases]. \nTokyo: \nNational Institute of Infectious Diseases, \n2014, pp. \n3\u2013\n4."},{"key":"bibr6-09677720231167784","unstructured":"Japan, Ministry of Finance Printing Bureau. Kanp\u014d [Japanese government gazette], no. 6102, 21 May 1947, p. 141."},{"key":"bibr7-09677720231167784","first-page":"463","volume-title":"Military medical ethics","volume":"2","author":"Harris SH","year":"2003"},{"key":"bibr8-09677720231167784","unstructured":"Kurozumi Medical Foundation. Kojima Sabur\u014d Sensei nitsuite ryakureki [A short biography of Kojima Sabur\u014d], http:\/\/www.kmf.or.jp\/person\/about_kojima.html (accessed 22 November 2022)."},{"key":"bibr9-09677720231167784","unstructured":"Kurozumi Medical Foundation. Tsuyoshi Kurozumi shi nitsuite, ryakureki [A short biography of Kurozumi Tsuyoshi], http:\/\/www.kmf.or.jp\/person\/about_kurozumi.html (accessed 22 November 2022)."},{"key":"bibr10-09677720231167784","unstructured":"Azami S. Ichi igakusha no kamo butai 731 butai kengakuki: \u014dsato shungo cho naika rinsh\u014d goj\u016bnen yori [A medical scientist\u2019s diary of a field trip to Kamo Unit 731: From Shungo Ohsato\u2019s Fifty years of internal medicine clinical practice]. In: Research Society for 15-year War and Japanese Medical Science and Service (ed) Sens\u014d, 731 to daigaku, ikadaigaku, zoku igakusha [War, 731 and universities, medical colleges]. Kyoto: Bunrikaku,  2016, p. 128."},{"key":"bibr11-09677720231167784","unstructured":"Guo C, Liao Y (eds). Qinghua rijun xijunzhan jishi [Records of bacterial warfare of the Japanese invasion in China].  Beijing:  Beijing Yanshn Press,  1997, pp.  278\u2013 402."},{"key":"bibr12-09677720231167784","unstructured":"Tsuneishi K. Igakushatachi no soshikihanzai: kant\u014dgun dai 731 butai [Organised crime by medical scientists: Unit 731 of the Kwantung Army]. Osaka: Asahi Shinbunsha, 1994. Kojima\u2019s activities related to biological warfare were directly recorded in the Summary Report on B.W. Investigations, written by Dr Edwin Hill and Dr Joseph Victor for the US government in 1947."},{"key":"bibr13-09677720231167784","unstructured":"Omata W. 731 butai ni kanyoshita ishi, igakukankeisha [Physicians and medical personnel involved in Unit 731]. https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20150807215132\/http:\/\/hirukawamura.web.fc2.com\/731\/731.htm (accessed 22 November 2022)."},{"key":"bibr14-09677720231167784","volume-title":"Japan\u2019s wartime medical atrocities: Comparative inquiries in science, history, and ethics","author":"Nie JB","year":"2010"},{"key":"bibr15-09677720231167784","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.4324\/NOE0415932141"},{"key":"bibr16-09677720231167784","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1017\/S0963180113000753"},{"key":"bibr17-09677720231167784","volume-title":"Unit 731: The Japanese army\u2019s secret of secrets","author":"Williams P","year":"1989"},{"key":"bibr18-09677720231167784","first-page":"197","volume-title":"Researching Japanese war crimes records: introductory essays","author":"Petersen M","year":"2006"},{"key":"bibr19-09677720231167784","unstructured":"Endicott SL, Hagerman E. The United States and biological warfare: secrets from the early cold war and Korea.  Bloomington:  Indiana University Press;  1998, pp.  75\u2013 77"},{"key":"bibr20-09677720231167784","unstructured":"Fukumi H, Hiraishi K, Kobari K, Miyairi M, Yamamoto S (eds). Laboratory works and preventive measures: Proceedings of the third SEAMIC seminar at the Tokyo Metropolitan Research Laboratory of Public Health, Tokyo, on February 17\u201328, 1976. Vol. 3. Tokyo: Southeast Asian Medical Information Center,  1977."},{"key":"bibr21-09677720231167784","unstructured":"Fukumi H, Ohashi M, Murakami H, Kudoh Y, Nakamura A (eds). Food hygiene in the problem of gastrointestinal infections: Proceedings of the fifth SEAMIC seminar at the Tokyo Metropolitan Research Laboratory of Public Health, Tokyo, February 8\u201318, 1978. Vol. 3. Tokyo: Southeast Asian Medical Information Center,  1978."},{"key":"bibr22-09677720231167784","unstructured":"United States, Central Intelligence Agency. Nazi War Crimes Disclosure Act: Hideo Fukumi 001. https:\/\/www.cia.gov\/readingroom\/docs\/FUKUMI%2C%20HIDEO_0001.pdf (accessed 22 November 2022)."},{"key":"bibr23-09677720231167784","unstructured":"Kat\u014d T. CIA Nihonjin file [CIA Japanese file].  Tokyo:  Gendaishiry\u014d Shuppan,  2014, p. 387."},{"key":"bibr24-09677720231167784","unstructured":"United States, Central Intelligence Agency. Nazi War Crimes Disclosure Act: Hideo Fukumi 002. https:\/\/www.cia.gov\/readingroom\/docs\/FUKUMI%2C%20HIDEO_0002.pdf (accessed 22 November 2022)."},{"key":"bibr25-09677720231167784","first-page":"80","volume-title":"Japan\u2019s wartime medical atrocities: comparative inquiries in science, history, and ethics","author":"B\u00e4rnighausen T","year":"2010"},{"key":"bibr26-09677720231167784","unstructured":"Hideyo Noguchi Memorial Museum. Igakush\u014d jush\u014dsha ichiran [List of medical award recipients]. http:\/\/www.noguchihideyo.or.jp\/sp\/igakusyou\/lists.php (accessed 22 November 2022)."},{"key":"bibr27-09677720231167784","volume-title":"Kaze to influenza [Common cold and influenza]","author":"Kojima S","year":"1947"},{"key":"bibr28-09677720231167784","volume":"16","author":"Kojima S","year":"1946","journal-title":"[Kagaku] [Science]"},{"key":"bibr29-09677720231167784","first-page":"139","volume":"16","author":"Kojima S","year":"1946","journal-title":"[Kagaku] [Science]"},{"key":"bibr30-09677720231167784","unstructured":"National Institute of Infectious Disease. Outline organization, function. https:\/\/www.niid.go.jp\/niid\/ja\/aboutniid.html (accessed 22 November 2022)."},{"key":"bibr31-09677720231167784","first-page":"187","volume":"20","author":"Fukumi H","year":"1959","journal-title":"Bulletin of the World Health Organization"},{"key":"bibr32-09677720231167784","first-page":"355","volume":"20","author":"Fukumi H","year":"1959","journal-title":"Bulletin of the World Health Organization"},{"key":"bibr33-09677720231167784","first-page":"421","volume":"20","author":"Fukumi H","year":"1959","journal-title":"Bulletin of the World Health Organization"},{"key":"bibr34-09677720231167784","first-page":"353","volume":"41","author":"Fukumi H","year":"1969","journal-title":"Bulletin of the World Health Organization"},{"key":"bibr35-09677720231167784","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1093\/infdis\/141.2.258"},{"key":"bibr36-09677720231167784","first-page":"249","volume-title":"Kagakusha toshite [As a scientist]","author":"Shibata S","year":"2000"},{"key":"bibr37-09677720231167784","volume-title":"731 butai saikinsen no ishi o oe: ima mo tsuzuku ky\u014dfu no jintaijikken [Tracking the physicians of Unit 731\u2019s germ warfare: The terrifying human experiments continue]","author":"On Unit 731 soldiers\u2019 mentality, see also Takasugi S","year":"1982"},{"key":"bibr38-09677720231167784","first-page":"576","volume":"104","author":"Thomas F","year":"1960","journal-title":"Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society"},{"key":"bibr39-09677720231167784","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jaut.2017.04.008"},{"key":"bibr40-09677720231167784","unstructured":"Fukumi H. Influenza\n                      .\n                      Tokyo:  Shinjyuku Shob\u014d,  1979, pp.  78\u2013 81."},{"key":"bibr41-09677720231167784","unstructured":"Shibata S. Bio jidai to anzensei no tetsugaku, yoken = kansenken saiban to saiiten y\u014dky\u016b und\u014d [The biotech age and the philosophy of safety: The National Institute of Health trial and the movement to demand its relocation].  Tokyo:  Kiri Shob\u014d,  2015, pp.  33\u2013 70."},{"key":"bibr42-09677720231167784","unstructured":"Association for the Study of the Safety of National Institute of Infectious Diseases. Yoken = kansenken saiban 18nen no ryakushi [A brief history of the 18-year trial of the Institute for Infectious Diseases]. http:\/\/stopbiohazard.com\/kokuritsukansenshoukenkyuusho-5\/ (accessed 22 November 2022)."},{"key":"bibr43-09677720231167784","first-page":"100","volume":"13","author":"Tsuchiya T","year":"2003","journal-title":"Eubios: Journal of Asian and International Bioethics"},{"key":"bibr44-09677720231167784","first-page":"150","volume":"26","author":"Yoshida K","year":"2006","journal-title":"Bioethics"},{"key":"bibr45-09677720231167784","volume-title":"Secret science: a century of poison warfare and human experiments","author":"Schmidt U","year":"2015"}],"container-title":["Journal of Medical Biography"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/journals.sagepub.com\/doi\/pdf\/10.1177\/09677720231167784","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/journals.sagepub.com\/doi\/full-xml\/10.1177\/09677720231167784","content-type":"application\/xml","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/journals.sagepub.com\/doi\/pdf\/10.1177\/09677720231167784","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,29]],"date-time":"2026-04-29T23:23:28Z","timestamp":1777505008000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/journals.sagepub.com\/doi\/10.1177\/09677720231167784"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2023,4,3]]},"references-count":45,"journal-issue":{"issue":"2","published-print":{"date-parts":[[2024,5]]}},"alternative-id":["10.1177\/09677720231167784"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1177\/09677720231167784","relation":{},"ISSN":["0967-7720","1758-1087"],"issn-type":[{"value":"0967-7720","type":"print"},{"value":"1758-1087","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2023,4,3]]}}}