{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,4]],"date-time":"2026-05-04T00:42:46Z","timestamp":1777855366954,"version":"3.51.4"},"reference-count":63,"publisher":"SAGE Publications","issue":"3","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2023,8,28]],"date-time":"2023-08-28T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1693180800000},"content-version":"tdm","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/journals.sagepub.com\/page\/policies\/text-and-data-mining-license"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["journals.sagepub.com"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["J Med Biogr"],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2024,8]]},"abstract":"<jats:p>Server Kamil became one of the most prominent doctors during the period of the Ottoman Empirey. Server Kamil, who specialized in bacteriology and sanitation, made a name for himself primarily through his fight in the memories against epidemic diseases on the Caucasus front during World War I. He was sent to the Caucasus front as chief physician of Erzurum Red Crescent (Hil\u00e2l-i Ahmer) Hospital, and made great efforts to prevent the disease typhus\u2014which was a major problem in the region\u2014as soon as he reached the front line. He worked long and hard to develop a vaccine to prevent typhus, which affects thousands of soldiers and civilians. He also played a pioneering role in establishing important institutions such as the Sivas Smallpox Vaccine Laboratory and the Rabies Treatment Centre, which accomplished significant work and achieved great success both during the World War I and in the period that followed. This article attempts to clarify the activities of Server Kamil on Caucasus front during World War I based on the documents of the Turkish Red Crescent Archive, the reports of the Red Crescent Society.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1177\/09677720231196571","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2023,8,29]],"date-time":"2023-08-29T00:40:33Z","timestamp":1693269633000},"page":"318-328","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1177\/sage-journals-update-policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Epidemic diseases during the World War I and Dr Server Kamil Tokg\u00f6z"],"prefix":"10.1177","volume":"32","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-0883-1995","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Mustafa","family":"Sar\u0131","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"History Department, Faculty of Social Sciences and Humanities, Sakarya University, Sakarya, Turkey"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"179","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,8,28]]},"reference":[{"key":"bibr1-09677720231196571","unstructured":"Server Kamil took the surname \u201cTokg\u00f6z\u201d in 1934 in accordance with the Law on Surnames. In the Turkish spelling, Kamil should be written as \u201cK\u00e2mil\u201d, it is written as \u201cKamil\u201d here."},{"key":"bibr2-09677720231196571","unstructured":"Unat EK.\n                      Osmanl\u0131 \u0130mparatorlu\u011funda Bakteriyoloji ve Viroloji\n                      , \u0130stanbul \u00dcniversitesi Cerrahpa\u015fa T\u0131p Fak\u00fcltesi Yay\u0131nlar\u0131, \u0130stanbul, 1970, p.86. The Imperial Military School of Medicine, established by the Ottoman Sultan Mahmud in 1827, had been one of the most important modern medical education institutions of the Ottoman State for many years. About the Imperial Military School of Medicine, also known as the Medical School (Mekteb-i T\u0131bbiye), for more information see (Nil Sar\u0131, \u201cMekteb-i T\u0131bbiyye\u201d,\n                      TDV \u0130sl\u00e2m Ansiklopedisi\n                      , 2004, Ankara, V. 29, pp.2\u20135). Server Kamil obtained his medical qualifications firstly from this institution."},{"key":"bibr3-09677720231196571","unstructured":"Unat.\n                      Osmanl\u0131 \u0130mparatorlu\u011funda Bakteriyoloji ve Viroloji\n                      , pp.86, 126\u2013127. Server Kamil obtained his medical qualifications secondly from this institution."},{"key":"bibr4-09677720231196571","unstructured":"Unat.\n                      Osmanl\u0131 \u0130mparatorlu\u011funda Bakteriyoloji ve Viroloji\n                      , p.86."},{"key":"bibr5-09677720231196571","unstructured":"Presidency of the Republic of T\u00fcrkiye Directorate State Archives - Ottoman Archives \/ T\u00fcrkiye Cumhuriyeti Cumhurba\u015fkanl\u0131\u011f\u0131 Devlet Ar\u015fivleri Ba\u015fkanl\u0131\u011f\u0131 - Osmanl\u0131 Ar\u015fivi \/ (BOA), Maarif Nezareti Mektubi Kalemi (MF.MKT), 1180\/ 76."},{"key":"bibr6-09677720231196571","unstructured":"BOA. Bab\u0131ali Evrak Odas\u0131 Evrak\u0131 (BEO), 4114\/ 308525, 1."},{"key":"bibr7-09677720231196571","unstructured":"\u00d6zdemir H. Salg\u0131n hastal\u0131klardan \u00d6l\u00fcmler 1914\u20131918, 2.  Ankara:  Bask\u0131, T\u00fcrk Tarih Kurumu,  2010, p. 282\u2013 283."},{"key":"bibr8-09677720231196571","first-page":"247","volume-title":"Osmanl\u0131 \u0130lmi ve Mesleki Cemiyetleri, Yay.Haz","author":"Toprak Z","year":"1987"},{"key":"bibr9-09677720231196571","unstructured":"Kahya E, Erdemir AD. Bilimin I\u015f\u0131\u011f\u0131nda Osmanl\u0131dan Cumhuriyete T\u0131p ve Sa\u011fl\u0131k Kurumlar\u0131.  Ankara:  T\u00fcrkiye Diyanet Vakf\u0131 Yay\u0131nlar\u0131,  2000, p. 310."},{"key":"bibr10-09677720231196571","unstructured":"Uzluk FN. \u201cOrd. Prof. Server K\u00e2mil Tokg\u00f6z, 1881\u20131943\u201d,\n                      T\u00fcrk H\u0131fz\u0131ss\u0131hha ve Tecr\u00fcb\u00ee Biyoloji Mecmuas\u0131\n                      , C. IV, 1944, p.5."},{"key":"bibr11-09677720231196571","unstructured":"The individuals in this photograph, noted as Pasteur Institute 1909\u20131910 Microbiology Trainees, are as follows: 1- Dr. Ethem Vasfi, 2- Dr. Server Kamil, 3- Dr. Riza Arif, 4- Prof. \u00c9mile Roux, 5- Prof. \u00c9lie Metchnikoff, 6- Dr. Osman Serafeddin, 7- Dr. Ferdi Recep, 8- Vet. Tekvor Kevorkian, 9- Dr. Mehmet, 10- Dr. Selahattin, 11- Dr. Arif Ata, 12- Dr. G. Yannoudis. Apart from \u00c9mile Roux and \u00c9lie Metchnikoff of these are the Turkish doctors who participated in the courses. https:\/\/www.tmc-online.org\/userfiles\/sunumlar\/08_Kas\/Ahmet_Basustaoglu.pdf (01.07.2023)."},{"key":"bibr12-09677720231196571","unstructured":"Cemal Azmi was appointed to Trabzon on July 16, 1914, just before the outbreak of World War I (BOA, \u0130rade Meclis-i Mahsus (\u0130.MMS), 187\/ 13, 2)."},{"key":"bibr13-09677720231196571","unstructured":"During the First World War, military training camps were opened in several places for the soldiers to be sent to the Caucasus Front. One of them was a 10,000-person training camp in Sivas (Aziz Samih \u0130lter,\n                      Birinci D\u00fcnya Sava\u015f\u0131\u2019nda Kafkas Cephesi Hat\u0131ralar\u0131\n                      , Yay.Haz. Zekeriya T\u00fcrkmen, Elmas \u00c7elik, Genelkurmay Askeri Tarih ve Stratejik Et\u00fct Ba\u015fkanl\u0131\u011f\u0131 Yay\u0131nlar\u0131, Ankara 2007, p.56)."},{"key":"bibr14-09677720231196571","unstructured":"Kamil S. Kafkas Cephe-i Harbinde Lekeli Humma.  Sivas:  Matbaa-i Vil\u00e2yet,  1917, p. 3."},{"key":"bibr15-09677720231196571","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1353\/bhm.1997.0182"},{"key":"bibr16-09677720231196571","unstructured":"Kamil.\n                      Kafkas Cephe-i Harbinde Lekeli Humma\n                      , p.3."},{"key":"bibr17-09677720231196571","first-page":"301","volume":"42","author":"Karatepe M","year":"2008","journal-title":"Mikrobiyoloji B\u00fclteni"},{"key":"bibr18-09677720231196571","unstructured":"Kamil.\n                      Kafkas Cephe-i Harbinde Lekeli Humma\n                      , p.3."},{"key":"bibr19-09677720231196571","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/BF02174399"},{"key":"bibr20-09677720231196571","unstructured":"Kamil.\n                      Kafkas Cephe-i Harbinde Lekeli Humma\n                      , p.3."},{"key":"bibr21-09677720231196571","unstructured":"Osmanl\u0131\u2019dan Cumhuriyete Hil\u00e2l-i Ahmer \u0130craat Raporlar\u0131 (1914\u20131928)\n                      , Yay.Haz. Murat Ulu\u011ftekin, M.G\u00fcl Ulu\u011ftekin, T\u00fcrk K\u0131z\u0131lay\u0131 Derne\u011fi, Ankara 2013, p.12\u201313."},{"key":"bibr22-09677720231196571","unstructured":"Turkish Red Crescent Archive \/ T\u00fcrk K\u0131z\u0131lay Ar\u015fivi (KA), 325\/ 149."},{"key":"bibr23-09677720231196571","unstructured":"KA, 325\/ 471."},{"key":"bibr24-09677720231196571","unstructured":"KA, 325\/ 151."},{"key":"bibr25-09677720231196571","unstructured":"Hil\u00e2l-i Ahmer \u0130craat Raporlar\u0131 (1914\u20131928)\n                      , p.13\u201314."},{"key":"bibr26-09677720231196571","unstructured":"KA, 325\/ 155."},{"key":"bibr27-09677720231196571","unstructured":"Hil\u00e2l-i Ahmer \u0130craat Raporlar\u0131 (1914\u20131928)\n                      , p.12\u201313."},{"key":"bibr28-09677720231196571","unstructured":"\u00dc\u00e7er M. \u201c1900 Y\u0131l\u0131ndan Cumhuriyet\u2019e Sivas\u2019ta T\u0131bb\u00ee Kurulu\u015flar\u201d,\n                      Yeni T\u0131p Tarihi Ara\u015ft\u0131rmalar\u0131\n                      , Say\u0131: 17, Y\u0131l: 2011, p.36."},{"key":"bibr29-09677720231196571","volume-title":"VIII. T\u00fcrk T\u0131p Tarih Kongresi, Kongreye Sunulan Bildiriler, (16\u201318 Haziran 2004, Sivas-Divri\u011fi)","author":"Aksu M","year":"2006"},{"key":"bibr30-09677720231196571","unstructured":"Server Kamil did not mention exactly who these vaccinated people were in his book. But, as mentioned before, it was obvious that the healthcare professionals were given priority."},{"key":"bibr31-09677720231196571","unstructured":"The agglutination test is an important tool in evaluating the protective effect of typhus vaccine. This test is a common method used to determine the efficacy of the vaccine and to evaluate the efficacy of vaccination works. A positive agglutination reaction indicates that the vaccine elicits an immune response."},{"key":"bibr32-09677720231196571","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1098\/rsbm.1957.0005"},{"key":"#cr-split#-bibr33-09677720231196571.1","unstructured":"In addition to his book, Server Kamil also wrote the following article about agglutination studies. Server Kamil, \"Lekeli Hummada Agglutination\", Servet-i F\u00fcnun, 52 (1337), 1917, pp.143-144. Apart from Server Kamil, the published studies of Turkish doctors about the Weil-Felix method during the First World War are as follows: Kadri, \"Lekeli Humman\u0131n Weil-Felix Team\u00fcl\u00fcyle Te\u015fhisi Misl-i Katisi\", Ceride-i T\u0131bbiye-i Askeriyye, 42 (15), 1916, 213-215"},{"key":"#cr-split#-bibr33-09677720231196571.2","unstructured":"Re\u015fat R\u0131za, \"Weil-Felix Proteus'\u00fc ve Lekeli Humman\u0131n Serolojik Te\u015fhisi\", S\u0131hhiye Mecmuas\u0131, 4-5 (11-12), 1917, pp.1133-1137"},{"key":"#cr-split#-bibr33-09677720231196571.3","unstructured":"Arzuyan, \"Weil-Felix Team\u00fcl\u00fc Hakk\u0131nda Malumat-\u0131 M\u00fctemmime ve \u0130statistik\", Ceride-i T\u0131bbiye-i Askeriye, 47 (16), 1918, pp.417-419"},{"key":"#cr-split#-bibr33-09677720231196571.4","unstructured":"Saadettin, \"Tif\u00fcsl\u00fclerde Weil-Felix Team\u00fcl\u00fc Hakk\u0131nda\", Ceride-i T\u0131bbiye-i Askeriye, 43 (3), 1918, p.43"},{"key":"bibr34-09677720231196571","unstructured":"Henrique da Rocha Lima, a Brazilian doctor, went to Germany to work in 1906. Rocha Lima worked with Stanislaus von Prowazek in Hamburg. During and after the Balkan Wars, Lima and Prowazek had researched epidemic typhus in Serbia and Istanbul. After the outbreak of World War I, he was appointed to fight typhus disease with Prowazek in a Russian prison camp in Cottbus. Both of them contracted typhus, and while Lima was recovering, Provek died on February 17, 1915. Rocha Lima discovered, the pathogen of epidemic typhus known as\n                      Rickettsia prowazekii\n                      , in memory of Stanislaus von Prowazek and Howard Tayler Ricketts. He published these works in the title of Zur Aetiologie des Fleckfiebers. See more information about his biography. Fred Bernardes Filho and Jo\u00e3o Carlos Regazzi Avelleira, Henrique da Rocha Lima, Anais Brasileiros de Dermatologia, 2015 May-Jun; 90(3): 363\u2013366; Andr\u00e9 Felipe C\u00e2ndido da Silva, \u201cThe Career of Henrique da Rocha Lima and German-Brazilian Relations (1901\u20131956)\u201d,\n                      Hist\u00f3ria, Ci\u00eancias, Sa\u00fade - Manguinhos\n                      , Rio de Janeiro, 17(2), Apr-June 2010. And his articles. Henrique da Rocha Lima \u201cZur Aetiologie des Fleckfiebers\u201d,\n                      Berliner Klinische Wochenschrift\n                      , 1916, 53, pp.567\u2013569 and da H. Rocha Lima, \u201cUntersuchungen \u00fcber Fleckfieber\u201d.\n                      M\u00fcnch, med. Wschr.\n                      63 (1916), pp.1381\u20131384. This last article of Lima was translated into Turkish by Ziya Nuri. See. H. da Rocha Lima, \u201cLekeli Hummaya Dair Taharriyat\u201d, trans. Ziya Nuri,\n                      Dar\u00fclf\u00fcnun T\u0131p Fak\u00fcltesi Mecmuas\u0131\n                      , 4 (1916), pp.343\u2013348."},{"key":"bibr35-09677720231196571","unstructured":"For more information about the book see: Server Kamil,\n                      Kafkas Cephe-i Harbinde Lekeli Humma\n                      , Matbaa-i Vil\u00e2yet, Sivas, 1917."},{"key":"bibr36-09677720231196571","first-page":"51","volume":"46","author":"Kamil S","year":"1917","journal-title":"Ceride-i T\u0131bbiye-i Askeriye"},{"key":"bibr37-09677720231196571","unstructured":"Indeed, an effective typhus vaccine could be produced by Rudolf Weigl, a Polish biologist, in 1930s (Herv\u00e9 Bazin,\n                      Vaccination: A History from Lady Montagu to Genetic Engineering\n                      , John Libbey Eurotext, p.346). The number of soldiers caught typhus and the number of deaths from only the 3rd Army region between 1915 and 1918 are as follows. 1915\u20139.489 \/ 4.377, 1916\u20136.641 \/2.060, 1917\u20132.143 \/ 791 and 1918 - 577 \/ 82 (year - number of patients \/ number of deaths). Mustafa Karatepe, \u201cI. D\u00fcnya Sava\u015f\u0131\u2019nda Kafkas Cephesi\u2019nde Tif\u00fcsle M\u00fccadele\u201d\n                      Yeni T\u0131p Tarihi Ara\u015ft\u0131rmalar\u0131\n                      , 8, 2002, pp.107\u2013162, As can be seen, the effect of typhus decreased considerably in 1917 and especially in 1918."},{"key":"bibr38-09677720231196571","unstructured":"Aksu. \u201cSivas Telkihhanesi ve \u00c7i\u00e7ek A\u015f\u0131s\u0131 \u00dcretim Tesisi\u201d, p.261."},{"key":"bibr39-09677720231196571","unstructured":"KA, 325\/ 389."},{"key":"bibr40-09677720231196571","unstructured":"Aksu. \u201cSivas Telkihhanesi ve \u00c7i\u00e7ek A\u015f\u0131s\u0131 \u00dcretim Tesisi\u201d, p.260."},{"key":"bibr41-09677720231196571","unstructured":"KA, 714\/ 68."},{"key":"bibr42-09677720231196571","unstructured":"KA, 325\/ 394."},{"key":"bibr43-09677720231196571","unstructured":"KA, 325\/ 388."},{"key":"bibr44-09677720231196571","unstructured":"KA, 325\/ 412."},{"key":"bibr45-09677720231196571","unstructured":"KA, 587\/ 196."},{"key":"bibr46-09677720231196571","unstructured":"KA, 325\/ 535."},{"key":"bibr47-09677720231196571","unstructured":"Sa\u011flam T. B\u00fcy\u00fck Harpte 3. Orduda S\u0131hh\u00ee Hizmet.  \u0130stanbul:  Asker\u00ee Matbaa,  1941, p. 301."},{"key":"bibr48-09677720231196571","unstructured":"Birinci D\u00fcnya Sava\u015f\u0131\u2019nda Do\u011fu Cephesi\u2019nde Sa\u011fl\u0131k Hizmetleri\n                      , Genelkurmay Asker\u00ee Tarih ve Stratejik Et\u00fct Ba\u015fkanl\u0131\u011f\u0131 Yay\u0131nlar\u0131, Genelkurmay Bas\u0131mevi, Ankara 2011, p.81."},{"key":"bibr49-09677720231196571","unstructured":"Sa\u011flam.\n                      B\u00fcy\u00fck Harpte 3. Orduda S\u0131hh\u00ee Hizmet\n                      , p.118, 302, 307."},{"key":"bibr50-09677720231196571","unstructured":"Hil\u00e2l-i Ahmer \u0130craat Raporlar\u0131 (1914\u20131928)\n                      , p.13."},{"key":"bibr51-09677720231196571","unstructured":"Sa\u011flam,\n                      B\u00fcy\u00fck Harpte 3. Orduda S\u0131hh\u00ee Hizmet\n                      , p.301\u2013302."},{"key":"bibr52-09677720231196571","unstructured":"Hil\u00e2l-i Ahmer \u0130craat Raporlar\u0131 1914\u2013\n                      1928, p.13."},{"key":"bibr53-09677720231196571","unstructured":"KA, 864\/ 106."},{"key":"bibr54-09677720231196571","unstructured":"Hil\u00e2l-i Ahmer \u0130craat Raporlar\u0131 (1914\u20131928)\n                      , p.13."},{"key":"bibr55-09677720231196571","unstructured":"Aksu. \u201cSivas Telkihhanesi ve \u00c7i\u00e7ek A\u015f\u0131s\u0131 \u00dcretim Tesisi\u201d, p.262\u2013263."},{"key":"bibr56-09677720231196571","unstructured":"Uzluk. \u201cOrd. Prof. Server K\u00e2mil Tokg\u00f6z, 1881\u20131943\u201d, p.5."},{"key":"bibr57-09677720231196571","unstructured":"Unat.\n                      Osmanl\u0131 \u0130mparatorlu\u011funda Bakteriyoloji ve Viroloji\n                      , p.88."},{"key":"bibr58-09677720231196571","unstructured":"Presidency of the Republic of T\u00fcrkiye State Archives Presidency - Republic Archive \/ T\u00fcrkiye Cumhuriyeti Cumhurba\u015fkanl\u0131\u011f\u0131 Devlet Ar\u015fivleri Ba\u015fkanl\u0131\u011f\u0131 - Cumhuriyet Ar\u015fivi \/ (BCA), 30\u201318-1-1\/ 25-52 \u22129."},{"key":"bibr59-09677720231196571","unstructured":"BCA, 180-9-0-0\/ 9-54-24."},{"key":"bibr60-09677720231196571","first-page":"261","volume":"31","author":"Kahya E","year":"1987","journal-title":"Ankara \u00dcniversitesi Dil ve Tarih-Co\u011frafya Fak\u00fcltesi Dergisi"}],"container-title":["Journal of Medical Biography"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/journals.sagepub.com\/doi\/pdf\/10.1177\/09677720231196571","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/journals.sagepub.com\/doi\/full-xml\/10.1177\/09677720231196571","content-type":"application\/xml","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/journals.sagepub.com\/doi\/pdf\/10.1177\/09677720231196571","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,29]],"date-time":"2026-04-29T23:23:31Z","timestamp":1777505011000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/journals.sagepub.com\/doi\/10.1177\/09677720231196571"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2023,8,28]]},"references-count":63,"journal-issue":{"issue":"3","published-print":{"date-parts":[[2024,8]]}},"alternative-id":["10.1177\/09677720231196571"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1177\/09677720231196571","relation":{},"ISSN":["0967-7720","1758-1087"],"issn-type":[{"value":"0967-7720","type":"print"},{"value":"1758-1087","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2023,8,28]]}}}