{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,4]],"date-time":"2026-05-04T21:43:51Z","timestamp":1777931031183,"version":"3.51.4"},"reference-count":70,"publisher":"SAGE Publications","issue":"4","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,11,12]],"date-time":"2025-11-12T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1762905600000},"content-version":"tdm","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/journals.sagepub.com\/page\/policies\/text-and-data-mining-license"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/100000060","name":"National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["R01 AI130066"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["R01 AI130066"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100000060","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/100000060","name":"National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["R01 ES026973"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["R01 ES026973"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100000060","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/100000060","name":"National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["R21 AI139784"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["R21 AI139784"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100000060","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/100000060","name":"National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["R43 AI141265"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["R43 AI141265"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100000060","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"name":"JHU COVID-19 Research and Response Program"},{"DOI":"10.13039\/100000066","name":"National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["R01 ES026973"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["R01 ES026973"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100000066","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"name":"FIA Foundation"},{"DOI":"10.13039\/100000002","name":"National Institutes of Health","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["U24 OD023382"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["U24 OD023382"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100000002","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"name":"Anonymous gift"},{"name":"Community Science and Innovation for Environmental Justice (CSI EJ) Initiative at the Johns Hopkins Center for a Livable Future"},{"DOI":"10.13039\/100000125","name":"National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["POE Total Worker Health Center pilot project grant"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["POE Total Worker Health Center pilot project grant"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100000125","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":["journals.sagepub.com"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["New Solut"],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2026,2]]},"abstract":"<jats:p>Workers in the animal slaughtering and processing industry have been disproportionately affected by the COVID-19 pandemic. Our mixed methods study aimed to describe worker experiences during the pandemic, focusing on workplace health and safety. We surveyed 69 animal slaughtering and processing workers in North Carolina between April 2021 and July 2022 and conducted in-depth interviews with 9 workers between July 2022 and April 2023. Nearly all survey participants reported their employers provided (94%) and required (90%) face masks, but fewer reported engineering or administrative controls. Interviewed participants described production as management's priority, over health and safety; difficulty taking time off when ill; inadequate communication from management; and an overall sense that \u201cwe were on our own\u201d in maintaining health and safety at work, especially later during the pandemic. Though unlikely under the current administration, an enforceable Occupational Safety and Health Administration infectious disease standard, including appropriate policies for isolation and paid time off, could help protect worker health.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1177\/10482911251384254","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,11,12]],"date-time":"2025-11-12T16:54:46Z","timestamp":1762966486000},"page":"410-423","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1177\/sage-journals-update-policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["\u201cWe Were on Our Own\u201d: Animal Slaughtering and Processing Industry Workers\u2019 Perspectives on Workplace Health and Safety During the COVID-19 Pandemic in North Carolina"],"prefix":"10.1177","volume":"35","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-0778-5539","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Carolyn","family":"Gigot","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0002-8889-1495","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Zachary","family":"Smith","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Kirsten","family":"Koehler","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Georgia J.","family":"Michlig","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"suffix":"Sr.","given":"Devon J.","family":"Hall","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Rural Empowerment Association for Community Help"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Christopher D.","family":"Heaney","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health"},{"name":"Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health"},{"name":"Department of Epidemiology, Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health, Baltimore, MD, USA"},{"name":"Community Science and Innovation for Environmental Justice Initiative, Center for a Livable Future, Department of Environmental Health and Engineering, Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health, Baltimore, MD, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"179","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,11,12]]},"reference":[{"key":"e_1_3_3_2_2","unstructured":"US Bureau of Labor Statistics. Quarterly census of employment and wages. Data Tools https:\/\/data.bls.gov\/cew\/apps\/bls_naics\/v3\/bls_naics_app.htm# (2022 accessed December 4 2023)."},{"key":"e_1_3_3_3_2","first-page":"351","article-title":"Health hazards in the meatpacking industry","volume":"14","author":"Campbell DS","year":"1999","unstructured":"Campbell DS. Health hazards in the meatpacking industry. Occup Med (Chic Ill) 1999; 14: 351\u2013372.","journal-title":"Occup Med (Chic Ill)"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_4_2","unstructured":"McConnell M. When we\u2019re dead and buried our bones will keep hurting. Human Rights Watch https:\/\/www.hrw.org\/report\/2019\/09\/04\/when-were-dead-and-buried-our-bones-will-keep-hurting\/workers-rights-under-threat (2019 accessed December 5 2023)."},{"key":"e_1_3_3_5_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/ajim.23206"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_6_2","unstructured":"BLS. Incidence rates of nonfatal occupational injuries and illnesses by industry and case types. US Bureau of Labor Statistics: Injuries Illnesses and Fatalities https:\/\/www.bls.gov\/iif\/oshwc\/osh\/os\/summ1_00_2020.htm (2020 accessed October 5 2022)."},{"key":"e_1_3_3_7_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1539\/joh.46.230"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_8_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/ajim.20299"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_9_2","unstructured":"Meatpacking - Hazards and Solutions | Occupational Safety and Health Administration https:\/\/www.osha.gov\/meatpacking\/hazards-solutions (accessed December 5 2023)."},{"key":"e_1_3_3_10_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1177\/003335490812300311"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_11_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/ajim.22186"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_12_2","unstructured":"House staff memorandum https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20230121174114\/https:\/\/coronavirus.house.gov\/sites\/democrats.coronavirus.house.gov\/files\/2021.10.27%20Meatpacking%20Report.Final_.pdf (2021 accessed June 19 2025)."},{"key":"e_1_3_3_13_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.15585\/mmwr.mm6927e2"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_14_2","article-title":"Meat plants\u2014a new front line in the COVID-19 pandemic","volume":"370","author":"Middleton J","year":"2020","unstructured":"Middleton J, Reintjes R, Lopes H. Meat plants\u2014a new front line in the COVID-19 pandemic. Br Med J 2020; 370: m2716.","journal-title":"Br Med J"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_15_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.2010115117"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_16_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1093\/annweh\/wxae067"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_17_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/ajim.23410"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_18_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pgph.0000619"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_19_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.7326\/M20-6306"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_20_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1177\/10482911221109648"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_21_2","unstructured":"OSHA. COVID-19 healthcare emergency temporary standard (ETS) https:\/\/www.osha.gov\/coronavirus\/ets (2021 accessed October 12 2023)."},{"key":"e_1_3_3_22_2","unstructured":"COVID-19 vaccination and testing ETS | Occupational safety and health administration https:\/\/www.osha.gov\/coronavirus\/ets2 (accessed December 6 2023)."},{"key":"e_1_3_3_23_2","unstructured":"1910.132 - general requirements. | Occupational safety and health administration https:\/\/www.osha.gov\/laws-regs\/regulations\/standardnumber\/1910\/1910.132 (accessed July 11 2023)."},{"key":"e_1_3_3_24_2","unstructured":"OSH Act of 1970 | Occupational safety and health administration https:\/\/www.osha.gov\/laws-regs\/oshact\/section5-duties (accessed January 11 2024)."},{"key":"e_1_3_3_25_2","unstructured":"COVID-19 - Regulations | Occupational safety and health administration https:\/\/www.osha.gov\/coronavirus\/standards (accessed April 18 2023)."},{"key":"e_1_3_3_26_2","volume-title":"A National and State-By-State Profile of Worker Safety and Health in the United States","author":"Reindel RL","year":"2023","unstructured":"Reindel RL, Fletcher M. A National and State-By-State Profile of Worker Safety and Health in the United States. 32nd ed. Washington, DC: AFL-CIO Safety and Health Department, 2023, https:\/\/aflcio.org\/reports\/death-job-toll-neglect-2023.","edition":"32"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_27_2","unstructured":"Protecting workers: Guidance on mitigating and preventing the spread of COVID-19 in the workplace | Occupational safety and health administration https:\/\/www.osha.gov\/coronavirus\/safework (accessed January 11 2024)."},{"key":"e_1_3_3_28_2","unstructured":"Krause JD Marcham C Mele B et al. Engineering controls for bioaerosols in non-industrial\/ non-healthcare settings. 2021."},{"key":"e_1_3_3_29_2","unstructured":"AIHA. Reducing the risk of COVID-19 using engineering controls. 9 September 2020."},{"key":"e_1_3_3_30_2","unstructured":"ASHRAE Epidemic Task Force. Core recommendations for reducing airborne infectious aerosol exposure. 19 October 2021."},{"key":"e_1_3_3_31_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(21)00869-2"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_32_2","unstructured":"COVID-19 fact sheet: Workers need respirators. ACGIH https:\/\/www.acgih.org\/covid-19-fact-sheet-worker-resp\/ (accessed June 19 2025)."},{"key":"e_1_3_3_33_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3390\/ijerph18157847"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_34_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1097\/JOM.0000000000002218"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_35_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/ajim.23510"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_36_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1097\/JOM.0000000000002802"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_37_2","first-page":"16","article-title":"A rapid-response survey of essential workers in midwestern meatpacking plants: perspectives on COVID-19 response in the workplace","volume":"84","author":"Ramos AK","year":"2021","unstructured":"Ramos AK, Lowe A, Herstein JJ, et al. A rapid-response survey of essential workers in midwestern meatpacking plants: perspectives on COVID-19 response in the workplace. J Environ Health 2021; 84: 16\u201325.","journal-title":"J Environ Health"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_38_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1128\/msphere.00522-22"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_39_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jbi.2019.103208"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_40_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jbi.2008.08.010"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_41_2","volume-title":"Designing and Conducting Mixed Methods Research","author":"Creswell JW","year":"2017","unstructured":"Creswell JW, Plano Clark VL. Designing and Conducting Mixed Methods Research. 3rd ed. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications, 2017.","edition":"3"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_42_2","unstructured":"R Core Team. R: A language and environment for statistical computing https:\/\/www.R-project.org\/ (2022)."},{"key":"e_1_3_3_43_2","unstructured":"ATLAS.ti https:\/\/atlasti.com."},{"key":"e_1_3_3_44_2","volume-title":"The Coding Manual for Qualitative Researchers","author":"Saldana J","year":"2013","unstructured":"Saldana J. The Coding Manual for Qualitative Researchers. 2nd ed. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications, 2013.","edition":"2"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_45_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1191\/1478088706qp063oa"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_46_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.scitotenv.2025.179591"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_47_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1126\/science.abh2939"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_48_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.15585\/mmwr.mm7021e1"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_49_2","unstructured":"CDC. Example COVID-19 prioritization questions for non-health care worksite assessments by state tribal local and territorial health departments https:\/\/archive.cdc.gov\/www_cdc_gov\/coronavirus\/2019-ncov\/downloads\/php\/open-america\/Prioritizing-Nonhealthcare-Worksite-Assessments-Checklist.pdf (2021)."},{"key":"e_1_3_3_50_2","unstructured":"Weiss JM. Health effects show fault in no-fault attendance policies https:\/\/ppc.uiowa.edu\/sites\/default\/files\/2022-01\/Health%20Effects%20Show%20Fault%20in%20No-Fault%20Attendance%20Policies.pdf (accessed April 10 2023)."},{"key":"e_1_3_3_51_2","article-title":"Do clinics in meat and poultry plants endanger workers?","volume":"25","author":"Berkowitz D","year":"2023","unstructured":"Berkowitz D, Goff AD, Fagan KM, et al. Do clinics in meat and poultry plants endanger workers? AMA J Ethics 2023; 25: E278\u2013E286.","journal-title":"AMA J Ethics"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_52_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1177\/21650799211016907"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_53_2","unstructured":"Union of Concerned Scientists. OSHA failing to record COVID-19 cases for workers https:\/\/www.ucs.org\/resources\/attacks-on-science\/osha-failing-record-covid-19-cases-workers (16 April 2020 accessed June 20 2025)."},{"key":"e_1_3_3_54_2","unstructured":"Andrews W. Many employers fail to report COVID-19 cases on their OSHA 300 logs of work-related injuries and illnesses https:\/\/www.gray-robinson.com\/insights\/post\/2664\/grayrobinson-labor-employment-e-lert-many-employers-fail-to-report-covid-19-cases-on-their-osha-300-logs-of-work-related-injuries-and-illnesses (accessed June 20 2025)."},{"key":"e_1_3_3_55_2","unstructured":"Office USGA. Workplace safety and health: Additional data needed to address continued hazards in the meat and poultry industry | U.S. GAO https:\/\/www.gao.gov\/products\/gao-16-337 (accessed December 22 2023)."},{"key":"e_1_3_3_56_2","unstructured":"CDC. Hierarchy of controls. The National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) https:\/\/www.cdc.gov\/niosh\/topics\/hierarchy\/default.html (2023 accessed January 11 2023)."},{"key":"e_1_3_3_57_2","unstructured":"REPORT: Misled & misinformed | How some U.S. employers use \u201cno fault\u201d attendance policies to trample on workers\u2019 rights - A better balance https:\/\/www.abetterbalance.org\/misled-misinformed\/ (accessed April 18 2023)."},{"key":"e_1_3_3_58_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1136\/oemed-2018-105639"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_59_2","unstructured":"Recordkeeping - Overview | Occupational safety and health administration https:\/\/www.osha.gov\/recordkeeping (accessed December 28 2023)."},{"key":"e_1_3_3_60_2","unstructured":"Employed persons by detailed industry sex race and Hispanic or Latino ethnicity\u202f: U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics https:\/\/www.bls.gov\/cps\/cpsaat18.htm (accessed December 15 2023)."},{"key":"e_1_3_3_61_2","unstructured":"USDA Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service. The occurrence of another highly pathogenic avian influenza (HPAI) spillover from wild birds into dairy cattle. Brief https:\/\/www.aphis.usda.gov\/sites\/default\/files\/dairy-cattle-hpai-tech-brief.pdf (7 February 2025)."},{"key":"e_1_3_3_62_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Nguyen T-Q Hutter C Markin A et al. Emergence and interstate spread of highly pathogenic avian influenza A(H5N1) in dairy cattle. 2024; 2024.05.01.591751.","DOI":"10.1101\/2024.05.01.591751"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_63_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1097\/00043764-200212000-00011"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_64_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/ajim.22594"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_65_2","unstructured":"CDC. Information for farm workers exposed to H5N1 bird flu in dairy cows. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention https:\/\/www.cdc.gov\/bird-flu\/worker-safety\/farm-workers.html (2024 accessed June 11 2024)."},{"key":"e_1_3_3_66_2","unstructured":"CDC. Interim guidance for employers to reduce exposure to avian influenza A viruses for people working with animals. Avian Influenza (Bird Flu) https:\/\/www.cdc.gov\/bird-flu\/prevention\/worker-protection-ppe.html (2025 accessed February 11 2025)."},{"key":"e_1_3_3_67_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1126\/sciadv.add6681"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_68_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3201\/eid2503.180708"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_69_2","unstructured":"Stone W. Trump cuts demolish agency focused on toxic chemicals and workplace hazards. NPR 2 May 2025 https:\/\/www.npr.org\/sections\/shots-health-news\/2025\/05\/02\/nx-s1-5379949\/trump-cuts-niosh-toxic-chemicals-workplace-hazards (2 May 2025 accessed June 20 2025)."},{"key":"e_1_3_3_70_2","unstructured":"Stone W. Under pressure HHS reinstates hundreds of occupational health workers. NPR 14 May 2025 https:\/\/www.npr.org\/2025\/05\/14\/nx-s1-5398092\/niosh-reinstates-occupational-health-workers (14 May 2025 accessed June 20 2025)."},{"key":"e_1_3_3_71_2","unstructured":"Clark R Buckley T. Anticipated regulatory changes with OSHA https:\/\/www.goldbergsegalla.com\/news-and-knowledge\/knowledge\/anticipated-regulatory-changes-with-osha\/ (7 April 2025 accessed June 20 2025)."}],"container-title":["NEW SOLUTIONS: A Journal of Environmental and Occupational Health Policy"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/journals.sagepub.com\/doi\/pdf\/10.1177\/10482911251384254","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/journals.sagepub.com\/doi\/full-xml\/10.1177\/10482911251384254","content-type":"application\/xml","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/journals.sagepub.com\/doi\/pdf\/10.1177\/10482911251384254","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,2]],"date-time":"2026-05-02T00:32:24Z","timestamp":1777681944000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/journals.sagepub.com\/doi\/10.1177\/10482911251384254"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2025,11,12]]},"references-count":70,"journal-issue":{"issue":"4","published-print":{"date-parts":[[2026,2]]}},"alternative-id":["10.1177\/10482911251384254"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1177\/10482911251384254","relation":{},"ISSN":["1048-2911","1541-3772"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1048-2911","type":"print"},{"value":"1541-3772","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2025,11,12]]}}}