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Geographic spatial concepts introduce particular problems for grounding\u2014connecting a word to its referent in the world\u2014because such concepts cannot be directly and solely based on sensory perceptions. In this article we investigate the grounding of geographic spatial concepts using mobile robots with cognitive maps, called Lingodroids. Languages were established through structured interactions between pairs of robots called where-are-we conversations. The robots used a novel method, termed the distributed lexicon table, to create flexible concepts. This method enabled words for locations, termed toponyms, to be grounded through experience. Their understanding of the meaning of words was demonstrated using go-to games in which the robots independently navigated to named locations. Studies in real and virtual reality worlds show that the system is effective at learning spatial language: robots learn words easily\u2014in a single trial as children do\u2014and the words and their meaning are sufficiently robust for use in real world tasks.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1177\/1059712311421437","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2011,10,26]],"date-time":"2011-10-26T20:17:31Z","timestamp":1319660251000},"page":"409-424","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1177\/sage-journals-update-policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":17,"title":["Lingodroids: socially grounding place names in privately grounded cognitive maps"],"prefix":"10.1177","volume":"19","author":[{"given":"Ruth","family":"Schulz","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Information Technology and Electrical Engineering, The University of Queensland, Australia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Gordon","family":"Wyeth","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Engineering Systems, Queensland University of Technology, Australia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Janet","family":"Wiles","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Information Technology and Electrical Engineering, The University of Queensland, Australia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"179","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2011,10,26]]},"reference":[{"key":"bibr1-1059712311421437","volume-title":"The hippocampus book","author":"Anderson P.","year":"2007"},{"key":"bibr2-1059712311421437","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s004220000171"},{"key":"bibr3-1059712311421437","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1162\/0899766053630369"},{"key":"bibr4-1059712311421437","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1080\/09540090500282479"},{"key":"bibr5-1059712311421437","first-page":"405","volume-title":"Approaches to the evolution of language: Social and cognitive bases","author":"Batali J.","year":"1998"},{"key":"bibr6-1059712311421437","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1177\/105971230501300404"},{"key":"bibr7-1059712311421437","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1177\/105971239900700311"},{"key":"bibr8-1059712311421437","volume-title":"The grounded colour naming game In Proceedings of the 18th IEEE International Symposium on Robot and Human Interactive Communication (Ro-Man 2009)","author":"Bleys J.","year":"2009"},{"key":"bibr9-1059712311421437","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/S0020-7373(75)80033-2"},{"key":"bibr10-1059712311421437","first-page":"37","volume-title":"Frontiers in Artificial Intelligence and Applications: Eighth Scandinavian Conference on Artificial Intelligence SCAI\u201903","author":"Bod\u00edk P.","year":"2003"},{"key":"bibr11-1059712311421437","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/S0921-8890(05)80025-9"},{"key":"bibr12-1059712311421437","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1098\/rstb.1997.0140"},{"key":"bibr13-1059712311421437","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/4235.918429"},{"key":"bibr14-1059712311421437","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1075\/pc.14.2.08can"},{"key":"bibr15-1059712311421437","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.4018\/ijsss.2011010104"},{"key":"bibr16-1059712311421437","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/978-1-4471-0663-0_9"},{"key":"bibr17-1059712311421437","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1080\/095400998116512"},{"key":"bibr18-1059712311421437","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1207\/s15516709cog0000_72"},{"key":"bibr19-1059712311421437","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1037\/10096-006"},{"key":"bibr20-1059712311421437","first-page":"27","volume-title":"Proceedings of the Tenth Netherlands\/Belgium Conference on Artificial Intelligence (NAIC\u201998)","author":"de Jong E. 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