{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,8]],"date-time":"2026-07-08T00:01:32Z","timestamp":1783468892654,"version":"3.55.0"},"reference-count":63,"publisher":"SAGE Publications","issue":"3","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,4,29]],"date-time":"2025-04-29T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1745884800000},"content-version":"tdm","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/journals.sagepub.com\/page\/policies\/text-and-data-mining-license"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["journals.sagepub.com"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["Integrated Computer-Aided Engineering"],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2025,8]]},"abstract":"<jats:p>According to US National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA), we have only explored five percent of our world ocean. Among the ocean exploration tasks, underwater object detection is a multidisciplinary challenge that extends beyond engineering into fields such as oceanography, marine biology, and environmental science. Scientifically, it involves understanding the complex interactions between sound waves, light, and water, as well as the navigation dynamics within marine environments. The underwater environment presents unique physical challenges for object detection due to factors like light attenuation, turbidity, and the variability of acoustic propagation. This paper introduces a cost-effective autonomous underwater prototype for real-time detection, and localization of small underwater objects (e.g., archaeological artifacts, parts of infrastructures, wreckage debris, but also life forms like fishes, corals etc.) in shallow waters. The system combines object identification with autonomous navigation capabilities. It consists of an autonomous underwater vehicle equipped with sensors, cameras, and localization tools, as well as a ground control station for monitoring and intervention. In particular, we focus on a case study about detecting and reporting the locations of unexploded ordnance materials, contributing to the monitoring of underwater hazards in conflict-affected regions. Key contributions include the integration of a cost-effective autonomous remotely operated vehicle with sensors and software for real-time detection and localization of small underwater objects, as well as an annotated dataset of UXO images, usable as a benchmark.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1177\/10692509251336668","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,4,29]],"date-time":"2025-04-29T03:28:01Z","timestamp":1745897281000},"page":"258-271","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1177\/sage-journals-update-policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":4,"title":["A cost-effective autonomous underwater system for small size object detection"],"prefix":"10.1177","volume":"32","author":[{"given":"Denis","family":"Tavaris","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Mathematics, Computer Science and Physics, University of Udine, Udine, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Leonardo","family":"Scandino","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Mathematics, Computer Science and Physics, University of Udine, Udine, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Gian","family":"Luca Foresti","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Mathematics, Computer Science and Physics, University of Udine, Udine, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-3206-2719","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Ivan","family":"Scagnetto","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Mathematics, Computer Science and Physics, University of Udine, Udine, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"179","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,4,29]]},"reference":[{"key":"e_1_3_4_2_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3233\/ICA-220675"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_3_2","unstructured":"ANSA. Ansa R. Anvcg in mare bombe guerra inesplose - Puglia [Internet]; 2018. http:\/\/www.ansa.it\/puglia\/notizie\/2018\/06\/29\/anvcg-in-mare-bombe-guerra-inesplose_229c0974-4d22-4ede-8773-76bb8bbc1fa6.html."},{"key":"e_1_3_4_4_2","unstructured":"CSIROscope. CSIRO. New sensor detects bombs on sea floor [Internet]; 2012. https:\/\/blog.csiro.au\/new-sensor-detects-bombs-on-sea-floor\/."},{"key":"e_1_3_4_5_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s10462-024-10788-1"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_6_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lin TY Maire M Belongie S et al. Microsoft COCO: common objects in context. In: Fleet D Pajdla T Schiele B and Tuytelaars T (eds) Computer vision \u2013 ECCV 2014. Cham: Springer International Publishing 2014. pp.740\u201355.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-319-10602-1_48"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_7_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3233\/ICA-230717"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_8_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/mice.13299"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_9_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.engstruct.2023.115676"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_10_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/mice.13274"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_11_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/mice.13219"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_12_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/mice.13143"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_13_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3233\/ICA-230702"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_14_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3233\/ICA-230715"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_15_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Summey DC McCormick JF Carroll PJ. Mobile underwater debris survey system (MUDSS). In: Oceans \u201999. MTS\/IEEE. riding the crest into the 21st century. Conference and exhibition. Conference Proceedings (IEEE Cat. No.99CH37008). vol. 1; 1999. pp.363\u201372.","DOI":"10.1109\/OCEANS.1999.799769"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_16_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1121\/2.0001012"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_17_2","unstructured":"Bucaro J Houston B Saniga M et al. Wide area detection and identification of underwater uxo using structural acoustic sensors. In: Naval research laboratory. vol. 12 2007 pp.1\u201386. Washington DC."},{"key":"e_1_3_4_18_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1121\/1.4763997"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_19_2","unstructured":"SERDP. Workshop on acoustic detection and classification of uxo in the underwater environment. Final Report. U.S. Department of Defense 2013."},{"key":"e_1_3_4_20_2","unstructured":"SERDP. Workshop on acoustic detection and classification of munitions in the underwater environment. Final Report. U.S. Department of Defense 2018."},{"key":"e_1_3_4_21_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.4031\/MTSJ.45.6.6"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_22_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/JOE.2005.850931"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_23_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/JOE.2018.2835538"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_24_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1049\/ip-rsn:20045068"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_25_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/TGRS.2017.2758808"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_26_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1155\/2019\/2892975"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_27_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Dzieciuch I Gebhardt D Barngrover C et al. Non-linear convolutional neural network for automatic detection of mine-like objects in sonar imagery. In: In V Longhini P Palacios A (eds) Proceedings of the 4th international conference on applications in nonlinear dynamics (ICAND 2016) 2017 pp.309\u201314. Cham: Springer International Publishing.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-319-52621-8_27"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_28_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ancuti C Ancuti CO Haber T et al. Enhancing underwater images and videos by fusion. In: 2012 IEEE conference on computer vision and pattern recognition 2012 pp.81\u20138.","DOI":"10.1109\/CVPR.2012.6247661"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_29_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1186\/2193-1801-3-757"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_30_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.optlastec.2017.09.017"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_31_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/TIP.2019.2955241"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_32_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Avola D Cannistraci I Cascio M et al. Real-Time GAN-Based model for underwater image enhancement. In: Foresti GL Fusiello A and Hancock E (eds) Image analysis and processing \u2013 ICIAP 2023 2023 pp.412\u201323. Cham: Springer Nature Switzerland.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-031-43148-7_35"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_33_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jvcir.2016.05.017"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_34_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neucom.2015.10.122"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_35_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neucom.2017.09.044"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_36_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s11802-019-3858-x"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_37_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1142\/S0129065723500521"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_38_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"De Nardin A Zottin S Paier M et al. Efficient few-shot learning for pixel-precise handwritten document layout analysis. In: Proceedings of the IEEE\/CVF winter conference on applications of computer vision 2023 pp.3680\u20138.","DOI":"10.1109\/WACV56688.2023.00367"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_39_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s00521-023-09356-5"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_40_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/mice.12993"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_41_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3389\/fmars.2023.1112955"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_42_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3233\/ICA-220694"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_43_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3233\/ICA-240735"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_44_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/mice.13188"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_45_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s11042-022-12502-1"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_46_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.oceaneng.2023.113861"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_47_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Xanthidis M Kalaitzakis M Karapetyan N et al. AquaVis: a perception-aware autonomous navigation framework for underwater vehicles. In: 2021 IEEE\/RSJ international conference on intelligent robots and systems (IROS); 2021. p. 5410\u20137.","DOI":"10.1109\/IROS51168.2021.9636124"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_48_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neucom.2023.01.056"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_49_2","article-title":"Experimental validation of a model-free high-order sliding mode controller with finite-time convergence for trajectory tracking of autonomous underwater vehicles","volume":"22","author":"Gonz\u00e1lez-Garc\u00eda J","year":"2022","unstructured":"Gonz\u00e1lez-Garc\u00eda J, G\u00f3mez-Espinosa A, Garc\u00eda-Valdovinos LG, et al. Experimental validation of a model-free high-order sliding mode controller with finite-time convergence for trajectory tracking of autonomous underwater vehicles. Sensors 2022; 22: 488. Available from: https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/22\/2\/488.","journal-title":"Sensors"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_50_2","unstructured":"BlueRobotics. BlueROV 2 - Affordable and Capable Underwater ROV 2024. https:\/\/bluerobotics.com\/store\/rov\/bluerov2\/."},{"key":"e_1_3_4_51_2","unstructured":"ArduPilot Dev Team. Pixhawk Overview; 2024. Available at: https:\/\/ardupilot.org\/copter\/docs\/common-pixhawk-overview.html (Online; accessed 24 February 2025)."},{"key":"e_1_3_4_52_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1145\/361237.361242"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_53_2","unstructured":"Hussain M. YOLOv5 YOLOv8 and YOLOv10: The Go-To Detectors for Real-time Vision; 2024. https:\/\/arxiv.org\/abs\/2407.02988."},{"key":"e_1_3_4_54_2","unstructured":"Foresti GL Scagnetto I. UXO dataset of images; 2022. https:\/\/lambda-iot.uniud.it\/uxo_dataset."},{"key":"e_1_3_4_55_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Dutta A Zisserman A. The VIA annotation software for images audio and video. In: Proceedings of the 27th ACM international conference on multimedia. MM \u201919. New York NY USA: ACM 2019. Available from: https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1145\/3343031.3350535.","DOI":"10.1145\/3343031.3350535"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_56_2","unstructured":"Buslaev A Parinov A Khvedchenya E et al. Albumentations: fast and flexible image augmentations. ArXiv e-prints. 2018."},{"key":"e_1_3_4_57_2","unstructured":"Tavaris D Scandino L Foresti GL et al. Web Appendix: automation videos and UXO detection videos using YOLOv5s; 2025. Available at: https:\/\/lambda-iot.uniud.it\/uxo_yolov5s (Online; accessed 19 February 2025)."},{"key":"e_1_3_4_58_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3233\/ICA-200638"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_59_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1017\/S0373463321000205"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_60_2","article-title":"lake environmental data harvester (LED) for alpine Lake monitoring with autonomous surface vehicles (ASVs)","volume":"16","author":"Odetti A","year":"2024","unstructured":"Odetti A, Bruzzone G, Ferretti R, et al. lake environmental data harvester (LED) for alpine Lake monitoring with autonomous surface vehicles (ASVs). Remote Sens (Basel) 2024; 16: 1998.","journal-title":"Remote Sens (Basel)"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_61_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.procs.2022.09.003"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_62_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3233\/ICA-240733"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_63_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/TNNLS.2022.3190448"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_64_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s10916-024-02122-7"}],"container-title":["Integrated Computer-Aided Engineering"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/journals.sagepub.com\/doi\/pdf\/10.1177\/10692509251336668","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/journals.sagepub.com\/doi\/full-xml\/10.1177\/10692509251336668","content-type":"application\/xml","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/journals.sagepub.com\/doi\/pdf\/10.1177\/10692509251336668","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,29]],"date-time":"2026-04-29T09:14:58Z","timestamp":1777454098000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/journals.sagepub.com\/doi\/10.1177\/10692509251336668"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2025,4,29]]},"references-count":63,"journal-issue":{"issue":"3","published-print":{"date-parts":[[2025,8]]}},"alternative-id":["10.1177\/10692509251336668"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1177\/10692509251336668","relation":{},"ISSN":["1069-2509","1875-8835"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1069-2509","type":"print"},{"value":"1875-8835","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2025,4,29]]}}}