{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,7]],"date-time":"2026-10-07T13:54:22Z","timestamp":1791381262847,"version":"4.3.3"},"reference-count":110,"publisher":"SAGE Publications","issue":"1","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2023,9,6]],"date-time":"2023-09-06T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1693958400000},"content-version":"tdm","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/journals.sagepub.com\/page\/policies\/text-and-data-mining-license"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/100009633","name":"Eunice Kennedy Shriver National Institute of Child Health and Human Development","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["P50 HD052117"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["P50 HD052117"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100009633","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":["journals.sagepub.com"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["Assessment"],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2024,1]]},"abstract":"<jats:p>We review literature related to the assessment and identification of Specific Learning Disabilities (SLD) and Intellectual Disabilities (ID). SLD and ID are the only two disorders requiring psychometric test performance for identification within the group of neurodevelopmental disorders in Diagnostic and Statistical Manual \u2013 5. SLD and ID are considered exclusionary of one another, but the processes for assessment and identification of each disorder vary. There is controversy about the identification and assessment methods for SLD, with little consensus. Unlike ID, SLD is weakly related to full-scale IQ, and there is insufficient evidence that the routine assessment of IQ or cognitive skills adds value to SLD identification and treatment. We have proposed a hybrid method based on the assessment of low achievement with norm-referenced tests, instructional response, and other disorders and contextual factors that may be comorbid or contraindicative of SLD. In contrast to SLD, there is strong consensus for a three-prong definition for the identification and assessment of ID: (a) significantly subaverage IQ, (b) adaptive behavior deficits that interfere with independent living in the community, and (c) age of onset in the developmental period. For both SLD and ID, we identify areas of controversy and best practices for identification and assessment.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1177\/10731911231194992","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2023,9,6]],"date-time":"2023-09-06T07:02:16Z","timestamp":1693983736000},"page":"53-74","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1177\/sage-journals-update-policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":60,"title":["Assessment of Specific Learning Disabilities and Intellectual Disabilities"],"prefix":"10.1177","volume":"31","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-1181-6721","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Jack M.","family":"Fletcher","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"University of Houston, TX, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Jeremy","family":"Miciak","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"University of Houston, TX, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"179","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,9,6]]},"reference":[{"key":"bibr1-10731911231194992","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1177\/07419325020230050501"},{"key":"bibr2-10731911231194992","volume-title":"Intellectual disabilities: Definition, Classification, and Systems of Support","author":"American Association on Intellectual and Developmental Disabilities","year":"2020","edition":"12"},{"key":"bibr3-10731911231194992","author":"American Psychiatric Association","year":"2013","journal-title":"Diagnostic and Statistical Manual \u2013 5"},{"key":"bibr4-10731911231194992","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.lindif.2008.04.004"},{"key":"bibr5-10731911231194992","first-page":"14","volume":"47","author":"Benson N. F.","year":"2018","journal-title":"Journal of the Texas Educational Diagnosticians\u2019 Association"},{"key":"bibr6-10731911231194992","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1080\/02702710390227387"},{"key":"bibr7-10731911231194992","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.4324\/9781410606297"},{"key":"bibr8-10731911231194992","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1037\/spq0000117"},{"key":"bibr9-10731911231194992","volume-title":"The backward child","author":"Burt C.","year":"1937"},{"key":"bibr10-10731911231194992","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1037\/a0025323"},{"key":"bibr11-10731911231194992","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1177\/00222194211037062"},{"key":"bibr12-10731911231194992","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/ldrp.12088"},{"key":"bibr13-10731911231194992","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1177\/00222194050380010301"},{"key":"bibr14-10731911231194992","volume-title":"Minimal brain dysfunction in children","author":"Clements S. D.","year":"1966"},{"key":"bibr15-10731911231194992","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1080\/10888438.2019.1631827"},{"key":"bibr16-10731911231194992","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1080\/10888438.2019.1640704"},{"key":"bibr17-10731911231194992","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1017\/CBO9781139017824"},{"key":"bibr18-10731911231194992","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1080\/02643298508252865"},{"key":"bibr19-10731911231194992","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev-med-042711-140053"},{"key":"bibr20-10731911231194992","unstructured":"Federal Register. (2013). https:\/\/www.federalregister.gov\/documents\/2013\/08\/01\/2013-18552\/change-in-terminology-mental-retardation-to-intellectual-disability"},{"key":"bibr21-10731911231194992","first-page":"329","volume-title":"Essentials of specific learning disability identification","author":"Flanagan D. P.","year":"2018"},{"key":"bibr22-10731911231194992","volume-title":"Learning disabilities: From Identification to intervention","author":"Fletcher J. M.","year":"2019","edition":"2"},{"key":"bibr23-10731911231194992","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1093\/arclin\/acw103"},{"key":"bibr24-10731911231194992","unstructured":"Fletcher J. M., Miciak J. (2019). The identification of specific learning disabilities: A summary of research on best practices. https:\/\/texasldcenter.org\/files\/resources\/SLD-Manual_Final.pdf"},{"key":"bibr25-10731911231194992","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1037\/0022-0663.86.1.6"},{"key":"bibr26-10731911231194992","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1080\/02796015.2011.12087725"},{"key":"bibr27-10731911231194992","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1097\/TLD.0000000000000004"},{"key":"bibr28-10731911231194992","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1750-8606.2008.00072.x"},{"key":"bibr29-10731911231194992","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1037\/0033-2909.101.2.171"},{"key":"bibr30-10731911231194992","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1177\/00222194050380020101"},{"key":"bibr31-10731911231194992","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1540-5826.2007.00237.x"},{"key":"bibr32-10731911231194992","first-page":"115","volume-title":"Educating Individuals with Disabilities: IDEIA 2004 and Beyond","author":"Fuchs L. S.","year":"2008"},{"key":"bibr33-10731911231194992","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1037\/amp0000452"},{"key":"bibr34-10731911231194992","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1080\/10615806.2012.691969"},{"key":"bibr35-10731911231194992","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/ldrp.12292"},{"key":"bibr36-10731911231194992","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1177\/073194871003300310"},{"key":"bibr37-10731911231194992","volume-title":"School neuropsychology: A practitioner\u2019s handbook","author":"Hale J. B.","year":"2004"},{"key":"bibr38-10731911231194992","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tine.2016.10.001"},{"key":"bibr39-10731911231194992","volume-title":"Adaptive Behavior Assessment System\u2014Third Edition","author":"Harrison P.","year":"2015"},{"key":"bibr40-10731911231194992","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1177\/0022219420920379"},{"key":"bibr41-10731911231194992","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1080\/02796015.2000.12086000"},{"key":"bibr42-10731911231194992","unstructured":"Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) regulations, 34 C.F.R. \u00a7\u00a7 300.3 et seq. (2006). IDEA regulations commentary, 71 Fed. Reg. 46651, (2006, August 14). http:\/\/idea.ed.gov\/download\/finalregulations.pdf"},{"key":"bibr43-10731911231194992","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1177\/073194871003300101"},{"key":"bibr44-10731911231194992","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1177\/001440291307900200"},{"key":"bibr45-10731911231194992","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1017\/S0954579400006052"},{"key":"bibr46-10731911231194992","first-page":"1","volume-title":"Proceedings of the annual meeting: Conference on exploration into the problems of the perceptually handicapped child","volume":"1","author":"Kirk S. A.","year":"1963"},{"key":"bibr47-10731911231194992","volume-title":"The RTI approach to evaluating learning disabilities","author":"Kovaleski J. F.","year":"2013"},{"key":"bibr48-10731911231194992","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1080\/21683603.2016.1155515"},{"key":"bibr49-10731911231194992","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1177\/073428298500300409"},{"key":"bibr50-10731911231194992","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1177\/002246698902300202"},{"key":"bibr51-10731911231194992","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jsp.2022.02.003"},{"key":"bibr52-10731911231194992","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s40688-016-0094-x"},{"key":"bibr53-10731911231194992","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jsp.2018.10.007"},{"key":"bibr54-10731911231194992","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1177\/1745691616635612"},{"key":"bibr55-10731911231194992","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1037\/spq0000037"},{"key":"bibr56-10731911231194992","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1080\/02796015.2014.12087413"},{"key":"bibr57-10731911231194992","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1037\/spq0000091"},{"key":"bibr58-10731911231194992","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1177\/0734282916683287"},{"key":"bibr59-10731911231194992","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1037\/edu0000096"},{"key":"bibr60-10731911231194992","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1080\/87565641.2013.825260"},{"key":"bibr61-10731911231194992","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0103537"},{"key":"bibr62-10731911231194992","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1080\/01688638808402801"},{"key":"bibr63-10731911231194992","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1177\/0022219409355472"},{"key":"bibr64-10731911231194992","volume-title":"Essentials of CAS assessment","author":"Naglieri J. A.","year":"1999"},{"key":"bibr65-10731911231194992","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cortex.2018.11.009"},{"key":"bibr66-10731911231194992","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cognition.2006.04.008"},{"key":"bibr67-10731911231194992","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev.psych.60.110707.163548"},{"key":"bibr68-10731911231194992","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1177\/1745691615577701"},{"key":"bibr69-10731911231194992","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1037\/0033-2909.131.4.592"},{"key":"bibr70-10731911231194992","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1080\/09084280902864469"},{"key":"bibr71-10731911231194992","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1177\/002246698401800403"},{"key":"bibr72-10731911231194992","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1750-8606.2008.00075.x"},{"key":"bibr73-10731911231194992","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1017\/S1355617711000890"},{"key":"bibr74-10731911231194992","volume-title":"Stanford\u2013Binet Intelligence Scales, Fifth Edition","author":"Roid G.","year":"2003"},{"key":"bibr75-10731911231194992","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1176\/ajp.139.1.21"},{"key":"bibr76-10731911231194992","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1469-7610.1975.tb01269.x"},{"key":"bibr77-10731911231194992","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1080\/19315861003695769"},{"key":"bibr78-10731911231194992","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1352\/1934-9556(2007)45[116:TROMRU]2.0.CO;2"},{"issue":"1","key":"bibr79-10731911231194992","first-page":"8","volume":"32","author":"Schneider W. J.","year":"2017","journal-title":"Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology"},{"key":"bibr80-10731911231194992","volume-title":"Woodcock\u2014Johnson Tests of Cognitive Abilities","author":"Schrank F.","year":"2014"},{"issue":"2","key":"bibr81-10731911231194992","first-page":"5","volume":"44","author":"Schultz E. K.","year":"2015","journal-title":"Dialog: Journal of the Texas Educational Diagnosticians Association"},{"key":"bibr82-10731911231194992","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1097\/00004583-198901000-00018"},{"key":"bibr83-10731911231194992","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1542\/peds.104.6.1351"},{"key":"bibr84-10731911231194992","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1177\/002221949202501001"},{"key":"bibr85-10731911231194992","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3389\/fnhum.2013.00932"},{"key":"bibr86-10731911231194992","volume-title":"Vineland Adaptive Behavior Scales","author":"Sparrow S. S.","year":"2016","edition":"3"},{"key":"bibr87-10731911231194992","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1037\/0022-0663.86.1.24"},{"key":"bibr88-10731911231194992","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/pits.20113"},{"key":"bibr89-10731911231194992","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1177\/001440290907600102"},{"key":"bibr90-10731911231194992","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1080\/02796015.2012.12087373"},{"key":"bibr91-10731911231194992","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3102\/00028312039002469"},{"key":"bibr92-10731911231194992","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1177\/0956797611419521"},{"key":"bibr93-10731911231194992","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1080\/09084280902864451"},{"key":"bibr94-10731911231194992","volume-title":"Intellectual disability and the death penalty","author":"Tass\u00e9 M. J.","year":"2018"},{"key":"bibr95-10731911231194992","volume-title":"Diagnostic Adaptive Behavior Scale (DABS)","author":"Tasse M. J.","year":"2017"},{"key":"bibr96-10731911231194992","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1037\/pas0000356"},{"key":"bibr97-10731911231194992","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.lindif.2013.11.001"},{"key":"bibr98-10731911231194992","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1037\/a0037173"},{"key":"bibr99-10731911231194992","first-page":"46540","volume":"71","author":"U.S. Department of Education","year":"2006","journal-title":"Federal Register"},{"key":"bibr100-10731911231194992","volume":"42","author":"U.S. Office of Education","year":"1977","journal-title":"Federal Register"},{"key":"bibr101-10731911231194992","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1177\/002221940003300302"},{"key":"bibr102-10731911231194992","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1177\/00222194060390020401"},{"key":"bibr103-10731911231194992","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s10519-010-9349-x"},{"key":"bibr104-10731911231194992","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/cad.20289"},{"key":"bibr105-10731911231194992","volume-title":"Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children","author":"Wechsler D.","year":"2014","edition":"5"},{"key":"bibr106-10731911231194992","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1037\/0033-2909.90.1.153"},{"key":"bibr107-10731911231194992","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1751-228X.2007.00019.x"},{"key":"bibr108-10731911231194992","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1177\/0022219413477476"},{"key":"bibr109-10731911231194992","unstructured":"Zablonsky B., Alford J. M. (2020). Racial and ethnic differences in the prevalence of Attention-deficit\/Hyperactivity Disorder and learning disabilities among U.S. children aged 3-17 years. NCHS Data Brief, 358. https:\/\/www.cdc.gov\/nchs\/products\/databriefs\/db358.htm"},{"key":"bibr110-10731911231194992","first-page":"536","volume":"73","author":"Zigler E.","year":"1969","journal-title":"American Journal of Mental Deficiency"}],"container-title":["Assessment"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/journals.sagepub.com\/doi\/pdf\/10.1177\/10731911231194992","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/journals.sagepub.com\/doi\/full-xml\/10.1177\/10731911231194992","content-type":"application\/xml","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/journals.sagepub.com\/doi\/pdf\/10.1177\/10731911231194992","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,28]],"date-time":"2026-04-28T12:12:45Z","timestamp":1777378365000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/journals.sagepub.com\/doi\/10.1177\/10731911231194992"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2023,9,6]]},"references-count":110,"journal-issue":{"issue":"1","published-print":{"date-parts":[[2024,1]]}},"alternative-id":["10.1177\/10731911231194992"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1177\/10731911231194992","relation":{},"ISSN":["1073-1911","1552-3489"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1073-1911","type":"print"},{"value":"1552-3489","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2023,9,6]]}}}