{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,4]],"date-time":"2026-05-04T22:26:28Z","timestamp":1777933588080,"version":"3.51.4"},"reference-count":49,"publisher":"SAGE Publications","issue":"1","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2020,9,13]],"date-time":"2020-09-13T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1599955200000},"content-version":"tdm","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/journals.sagepub.com\/page\/policies\/text-and-data-mining-license"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["journals.sagepub.com"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["Violence Against Women"],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2021,1]]},"abstract":"<jats:p>The Violence Against Women Act (VAWA), originally passed in 1994, was successfully reauthorized in 2000, 2005, and 2013. Over time, VAWA altered the environment for many victims who had previously suffered in silence. This article focuses on how VAWA impacted American Indian (AI) and Alaska Native (AN) victims of dating and domestic violence. AI and AN women experience these crimes at a rate higher than the national average, yet they are often denied justice due to the interplay of federal and state laws and tribal sovereignty. VAWA affirmed tribes\u2019 sovereign authority to exercise criminal jurisdiction over non-Indians who commit crimes against AI and AN victims on tribal lands. This article also discusses future steps to enhance justice reforms.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1177\/1077801220949695","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2020,9,14]],"date-time":"2020-09-14T02:14:43Z","timestamp":1600049683000},"page":"52-68","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1177\/sage-journals-update-policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":6,"title":["Seeking Justice: How VAWA Reduced the Stronghold Over American Indian and Alaska Native Women"],"prefix":"10.1177","volume":"27","author":[{"given":"Jennifer L.","family":"Hartman","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"University of North Carolina at Charlotte, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"179","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2020,9,13]]},"reference":[{"key":"bibr1-1077801220949695","unstructured":"Amnesty International USA. (2007). Maze of injustice: The failure to protect indigenous women from sexual violence in the USA. https:\/\/www.amnestyusa.org\/pdfs\/mazeofinjustice.pdf"},{"key":"bibr2-1077801220949695","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bachman R., Zaykowski H., Lanier C., Poteyeva M., Kallmyer R. (2010). Estimating the magnitude of rape and sexual assault against American Indian and Alaska Native (AIAN) women. Australian and New Zealand Journal of Criminology, 43, 199\u2013222. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1375\/acri.43.2.199","DOI":"10.1375\/acri.43.2.199"},{"key":"bibr3-1077801220949695","unstructured":"Black M. C., Basile K. C., Breiding M. J., Smith S. G., Walters M. L., Merrick M. T., Stevens M. R. (2011). The National Intimate Partner and Sexual Violence Survey (NISVS): 2010 summary report. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. National Center for Injury Prevention and Control, Atlanta, Georgia. https:\/\/www.cdc.gov\/violenceprevention\/pdf\/NISVS_Report2010-a.pdf"},{"key":"bibr4-1077801220949695","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Connolly M., Gallagher M., Hodge F., Cwik M., O\u2019Keefe V., Jacobs B., Adler A. (2019). Identification in a time of invisibility for American Indians and Alaska Natives in the United States. Statistical Journal of the IAOS, 35, 71\u201389. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3233\/SJI-190495","DOI":"10.3233\/SJI-190495"},{"key":"bibr5-1077801220949695","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Crossland C., Palmer J., Brooks A. (2013). NIJ\u2019s program of research on violence against American Indian and Alaska Native women. Violence Against Women, 19, 771\u2013790. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1177\/1077801213494706","DOI":"10.1177\/1077801213494706"},{"key":"bibr6-1077801220949695","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.4324\/9781315051673"},{"key":"bibr7-1077801220949695","unstructured":"Duthu N. B. (2008, August 10). Broken justice in Indian country. New York Times. https:\/\/www.nytimes.com\/2008\/08\/11\/opinion\/11duthu.html"},{"key":"bibr8-1077801220949695","unstructured":"Flay R. (2017). A silent epidemic: Revisiting the 2013 reauthorization of the Violence Against Women Act to better protect American Indian\/Alaskan Native. American Indian Law Journal, 5(1), 230\u2013262. https:\/\/digitalcommons.law.seattleu.edu\/ailj\/vol5\/iss1\/5"},{"key":"bibr9-1077801220949695","unstructured":"Futures Without Violence. (2011). The facts on Violence Against American Indian\/Alaskan Native Women. https:\/\/www.futureswithoutviolence.org\/userfiles\/file\/Violence%20Against%20AI%20AN%20Women%20Fact%20Sheet.pdf"},{"key":"bibr10-1077801220949695","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Jones D. S. (2006). The persistence of American Indian health disparities. American Journal of Public Health, 96, 2122\u20132134. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.2105\/AJPH.2004.054262","DOI":"10.2105\/AJPH.2004.054262"},{"key":"bibr11-1077801220949695","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Jones L. (2008). The distinctive characteristics and needs of domestic violence victims in a Native American Community. Journal of Family Violence, 23, 113\u2013118. https:\/\/link.springer.com\/article\/10.1007\/s10896-007-9132-9","DOI":"10.1007\/s10896-007-9132-9"},{"key":"bibr12-1077801220949695","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Jones M. S., Worthen M. G., Sharp S. F., McLeod D. A. (2020). Native American and non-native American women prisoners, adverse childhood experiences, and the perpetration of physical violence in adult intimate relationships. Journal of Interpersonal Violence. Advance online publication. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1177\/0886260519897328","DOI":"10.1177\/0886260519897328"},{"key":"bibr13-1077801220949695","unstructured":"Karch D. L., Logan J., McDaniel D., Parks S., Patel N. (2012). Surveillance for violent deaths: National violent death reporting system, 16 states, 2009. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report, 61, 1\u201343. https:\/\/www.cdc.gov\/mmwr\/volumes\/68\/ss\/ss6809a1.htm"},{"key":"bibr14-1077801220949695","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lee R. K., Thompson V. L. S., Mechanic M. B. (2002). Intimate partner violence and women of color: A call for innovations. American Journal of Public Health, 92(4), 530\u2013534. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.2105\/ajph.92.4.530","DOI":"10.2105\/AJPH.92.4.530"},{"key":"bibr15-1077801220949695","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Macklem M. (1993). Distributing sovereignty: Indian nations and equality of peoples. Stanford Law Review, 45, 1311\u20131367. https:\/\/ssrn.com\/abstract=1162211","DOI":"10.2307\/1229071"},{"key":"bibr16-1077801220949695","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"McEachern D., Van Winkle M., Steiner S. (1998). Domestic violence among the Navajo: A legacy of colonialization. Journal of Poverty, 2(4), 31\u201346. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1300\/J134v02n04_03","DOI":"10.1300\/J134v02n04_03"},{"key":"bibr17-1077801220949695","unstructured":"Monet J. (2014, February 24). Bringing some justice to Indian Country with VAWA. www.indianz.com\/News\/2014\/02\/24\/jenni-monet-bringing-some-just.asp"},{"key":"bibr18-1077801220949695","unstructured":"National Congress of American Indians. (2018). VAWA 2013\u2019s special domestic violence criminal jurisdiction five-year report. http:\/\/www.ncai.org\/resources\/ncai-publications\/SDVCJ_5_Year_Report.pdf"},{"key":"bibr19-1077801220949695","unstructured":"Nielsen M., Robyn L. M. (2019). Colonialism is crime. Rutgers University Press. https:\/\/www.ubcpress.ca\/colonialism-is-crime"},{"key":"bibr20-1077801220949695","unstructured":"O\u2019Connor S.D. (1997). Lessons from the third sovereign: Indian tribal courts. Tulsa Law Review Journal, 33(1), 1\u20136. https:\/\/digitalcommons.law.utulsa.edu\/tlr\/vol33\/iss1\/1"},{"key":"bibr21-1077801220949695","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Oetzel J., Duran B. (2004). Intimate partner violence in American Indian and\/or Alaska Native Communities: A social ecological framework of determinants and interventions. American Indian and Alaska Native Mental Health Research, 11(3), 49\u201368. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.5820\/aian.1103.2004.49","DOI":"10.5820\/aian.1103.2004.49"},{"key":"bibr22-1077801220949695","unstructured":"Pacheco A. M. K. (2009). Broken traditions: Overcoming the jurisdictional maze to protect Native American women from sexual violence. Journal of Law & Social Challenges, 11, 1\u201344. https:\/\/www.amnestyusa.org\/pdfs\/mazeofinjustice.pdf"},{"key":"bibr23-1077801220949695","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Riley A. R. (2016). Crime and governance in Indian country. UCLA Law Review, 63, 1564\u20131617. https:\/\/www.uclalawreview.org\/crime-and-governance-in-indian-country\/","DOI":"10.31228\/osf.io\/3gks7"},{"key":"bibr24-1077801220949695","volume-title":"Violence against American Indian and Alaska Native women and men: 2010 findings from the National intimate partner and sexual violence survey","author":"Rosay A. B.","year":"2016"},{"key":"bibr25-1077801220949695","unstructured":"Rosenthal L. (2012). Strengthening the Violence Against Women Act. National Archives and Records Administration. https:\/\/obamawhitehouse.archives.gov\/blog\/2012\/04\/25\/strengthening-violence-against-women-act"},{"key":"bibr26-1077801220949695","unstructured":"Sacco L. (2015). The Violence Against Women Act: Overview, legislation, and federal funding. congressional research service. www.crs.gov"},{"key":"bibr27-1077801220949695","unstructured":"Smith J. M., Thompson R. M. (2012, April). Tribal criminal jurisdiction over non-Indians in the Violence Against Women Act (VAWA) reauthorization and the SAVE Native Women Act. Congressional Research Service, Library of Congress. https:\/\/fas.org\/sgp\/crs\/misc\/R42488.pdf"},{"key":"bibr28-1077801220949695","unstructured":"Tighe S. (2014). \u201cOf course we are crazy\u201d: Discrimination of Native American Indians through criminal justice. Justice Policy Journal, 11, 1\u201338. www.cjcj.org\/jpj"},{"key":"bibr29-1077801220949695","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Tjaden P., Thoennes N. (2000). Prevalence and consequences of male-to-female and female-to-male partner violence as measured by the National Violence Against Women Survey. Violence Against Women, 6(2), 142\u2013161. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1177\/10778010022181769","DOI":"10.1177\/10778010022181769"},{"key":"bibr30-1077801220949695","unstructured":"Tribal Law and Policy Institute & United States of America. (2015). Tribal legal code resource: Tribal laws implementing TLOA enhanced sentencing and VAWA enhanced jurisdiction. http:\/\/www.tribal-institute.org\/download\/codes\/TLOA_VAWA_3-9-15.pdf"},{"key":"bibr31-1077801220949695","volume-title":"The American Indian and Alaska Native population: 2010","author":"U.S. Census Bureau","year":"2012"},{"key":"bibr32-1077801220949695","unstructured":"U.S. Department of Justice. (2014). Justice department announces three tribes to implement special domestic violence criminal jurisdiction under VAWA 2013. https:\/\/www.justice.gov\/opa\/pr\/justice-department-announces-three-tribes-implement-special-domestic-violence-criminal#:~:text=Three%20American%20Indian%20tribes%20%E2%80%93%20the,Indian%20or%20non%2DIndian%20status"},{"key":"bibr33-1077801220949695","unstructured":"U.S. Government Accountability Office. (2010). U.S. Department of Justice declinations of Indian Country criminal matters. https:\/\/www.gao.gov\/products\/GAO-11-167R"},{"key":"bibr34-1077801220949695","unstructured":"U.S. Government Accountability Office. (2011). Indian Country Criminal Justice: Departments of the interior and justice should strengthen coordination to support tribal courts. https:\/\/www.gao.gov\/new.items\/d11252.pdf"},{"issue":"4","key":"bibr35-1077801220949695","first-page":"1","volume":"55","author":"Urbina A.","year":"2016","journal-title":"The Judges\u2019 Journal"},{"key":"bibr36-1077801220949695","unstructured":"Violence Against Women Act. (2013). Pilot project, U.S. Department of Justice. https:\/\/www.justice.gov\/tribal\/vawa-2013-pilot-project"},{"key":"bibr37-1077801220949695","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wahab S., Olson L. (2004). Intimate partner violence and sexual assault in Native American communities. Trauma, Violence, and Abuse, 5(4), 353\u2013366. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1177\/1524838004269489","DOI":"10.1177\/1524838004269489"},{"key":"bibr38-1077801220949695","unstructured":"Wang H. L. (2014). For abused Native American Women, new law provides a \u201cRay Of Hope.\u201d National Public Radio, 21 abused. www.npr.org\/sections\/codeswitch\/2014\/02\/20\/280189261\/for-"},{"key":"bibr39-1077801220949695","unstructured":"Zahn M. (2015). Special domestic violence criminal jurisdiction for Indian tribes: Inherent tribal sovereignty versus defendants\u2019 complete constitutional rights. University of Pennsylvania Law Review, 164, 243\u2013251. https:\/\/ssrn.com\/abstract=2709412"},{"key":"bibr40-1077801220949695","unstructured":"Indian country defined, 18 U.S. Code \u00a7 \u202f1151."},{"key":"bibr41-1077801220949695","unstructured":"Oliphant v. Suquamish Indian Tribe, 435 U.S. (191, 210)\n                      (1978)."},{"key":"bibr42-1077801220949695","unstructured":"Tribal Law and Order Act of 2010, Pub. L. No. 111-211, Title II, \u00a7 266, 124 Stat. 2258, 2262 (2010)."},{"key":"bibr43-1077801220949695","unstructured":"United States v. Castleman\n                      , 134 S. Ct. 1405 (2014)."},{"key":"bibr44-1077801220949695","unstructured":"Violence Against Women Act of 1994, Public Law Number 103-322."},{"key":"bibr45-1077801220949695","unstructured":"Violence Against Women Reauthorization Act of 2000, Public Law Number 106-386."},{"key":"bibr46-1077801220949695","unstructured":"Violence Against Women Reauthorization Act of 2005, Public Law Number 109-162."},{"key":"bibr47-1077801220949695","unstructured":"Violence Against Women Reauthorization Act of 2013, Public Law 113-4, 127 Stat. 54."},{"key":"bibr48-1077801220949695","unstructured":"Violence Against Women Reauthorization Act of 2019, H.R.1585, 116th Cong. (2019)."},{"key":"bibr49-1077801220949695","unstructured":"18 U.S.C. Section 1151, Indian Law & Order Commission (2013)."}],"container-title":["Violence Against Women"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/journals.sagepub.com\/doi\/pdf\/10.1177\/1077801220949695","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/journals.sagepub.com\/doi\/full-xml\/10.1177\/1077801220949695","content-type":"application\/xml","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/journals.sagepub.com\/doi\/pdf\/10.1177\/1077801220949695","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,2]],"date-time":"2026-05-02T01:54:20Z","timestamp":1777686860000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/journals.sagepub.com\/doi\/10.1177\/1077801220949695"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2020,9,13]]},"references-count":49,"journal-issue":{"issue":"1","published-print":{"date-parts":[[2021,1]]}},"alternative-id":["10.1177\/1077801220949695"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1177\/1077801220949695","relation":{},"ISSN":["1077-8012","1552-8448"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1077-8012","type":"print"},{"value":"1552-8448","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2020,9,13]]}}}