{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,22]],"date-time":"2026-09-22T02:08:43Z","timestamp":1790042923451,"version":"4.0.1"},"reference-count":63,"publisher":"SAGE Publications","issue":"12-13","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2023,5,19]],"date-time":"2023-05-19T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1684454400000},"content-version":"tdm","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/journals.sagepub.com\/page\/policies\/text-and-data-mining-license"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["journals.sagepub.com"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["Violence Against Women"],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2024,10]]},"abstract":"<jats:p>There is widespread scientific evidence that validates tonic immobility (TI) as part of the trauma response in victims of rape, and criminal justice practitioners are increasingly trained in trauma-informed approaches. Yet, legal and policy definitions of consent do not fully recognize TI during the incident as evidence of nonconsent. Using a systematic review of U.S. law and policy regarding sexual violence and consent, this paper analyzes the substantial legal reform of rape law and definitions of consent, suggesting ways to further integrate TI into existing law and legal practices to improve public health approaches and justice responses for victims.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1177\/10778012231174347","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2023,5,19]],"date-time":"2023-05-19T03:02:57Z","timestamp":1684465377000},"page":"3111-3139","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1177\/sage-journals-update-policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":11,"title":["Tonic Immobility as a Defensive Trauma Response to Rape: Bridging Public Health and Law"],"prefix":"10.1177","volume":"30","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-8597-6410","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Brooke A.","family":"de Heer","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Criminology and Criminal Justice, Northern Arizona University, Flagstaff, AZ, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Lynn C.","family":"Jones","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Criminology and Criminal Justice, Northern Arizona University, Flagstaff, AZ, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"179","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,5,19]]},"reference":[{"key":"bibr1-10778012231174347","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1177\/088626086001001007"},{"key":"bibr2-10778012231174347","unstructured":"Arizona Board of Regents. (2015).\n                      Policy number 5-308, student code of conduct\n                      . https:\/\/provost.asu.edu\/sites\/default\/files\/page\/2541\/abor-5-308-student_code_of_conduct-2017.pdf"},{"key":"bibr3-10778012231174347","volume-title":"Stopping rape: Successful survival strategies","author":"Bart P.","year":"1985"},{"key":"bibr4-10778012231174347","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1080\/00224490802398381"},{"key":"bibr5-10778012231174347","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1177\/1524838003004003003"},{"key":"bibr6-10778012231174347","unstructured":"Blus A. (2018, April 23).\n                      Sex without consent is rape. So why do only nine European countries recognize this?\n                      Amnesty International. https:\/\/www.amnesty.org\/en\/latest\/news\/2018\/04\/eu-sex-without-consent-is-rape\/"},{"key":"bibr7-10778012231174347","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/jts.20354"},{"key":"bibr8-10778012231174347","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1080\/08974454.2011.558801"},{"key":"bibr9-10778012231174347","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1176\/ajp.133.4.413"},{"key":"bibr10-10778012231174347","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1215\/03616878-3665931"},{"key":"bibr11-10778012231174347","unstructured":"California Education Code, \u00a7 67386 (2015). (Added by Stats.2014, c. 748 (S.B.967), \u00a7 1, eff. Jan. 1, 2015). https:\/\/leginfo.legislature.ca.gov\/faces\/codes_displaySection.xhtml?lawCode=EDC\u00a7ionNum=67386"},{"key":"bibr12-10778012231174347","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1037\/0003-066X.63.8.702"},{"key":"bibr13-10778012231174347","unstructured":"Code of Alabama, \u00a7 13A-6-70(b) (1975). https:\/\/casetext.com\/statute\/code-of-alabama\/title-13a-criminal-code\/chapter-6-offenses-involving-danger-to-the-person\/article-4-sexual-offenses\/section-13a-6-70-lack-of-consent#:~:text=Section%2013A%2D6%2D70%20%2D%20Lack%20of%20consent%20(a,2)%20Being%20incapable%20of%20consent"},{"key":"bibr14-10778012231174347","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.18574\/nyu\/9780814707937.001.0001"},{"issue":"4","key":"bibr15-10778012231174347","first-page":"1081","volume":"101","author":"Decker J. F.","year":"2011","journal-title":"The Journal of Criminal Law and Criminology"},{"key":"bibr16-10778012231174347","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1891\/0886-6708.VV-D-15-00099"},{"key":"bibr17-10778012231174347","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1037\/law0000055"},{"key":"bibr18-10778012231174347","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1155\/2007\/60803"},{"key":"bibr19-10778012231174347","volume-title":"An international legal response to #MeToo, rape, and sexual abuse is needed","author":"Dowds E."},{"key":"bibr20-10778012231174347","volume-title":"Sweden\u2019s new law on affirmative consent is hailed, but questions remain","author":"Elliot V."},{"key":"bibr21-10778012231174347","unstructured":"Ex parte Gordon, 706 So.2d 1160 (Ala. 1997)."},{"key":"bibr22-10778012231174347","unstructured":"Fontaine A. S. (2018, March 23). Iceland unanimously passes landmark law on sexual consent.\n                      The Reykjavik Grapevine\n                      . https:\/\/grapevine.is\/news\/2018\/03\/23\/iceland-unanimously-passes-landmark-law-on-sexual-consent\/"},{"key":"bibr23-10778012231174347","volume-title":"The tonic immobility scale","author":"Forsyth J. P.","year":"2000"},{"key":"bibr24-10778012231174347","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1177\/088626093008001008"},{"key":"bibr25-10778012231174347","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1093\/jicj\/mqs012"},{"key":"bibr26-10778012231174347","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.5127\/jep.051915"},{"key":"bibr27-10778012231174347","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.wsif.2012.01.003"},{"key":"bibr28-10778012231174347","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.brat.2004.08.005"},{"key":"bibr29-10778012231174347","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1177\/0964663913499061"},{"key":"bibr30-10778012231174347","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.2307\/3053892"},{"key":"bibr31-10778012231174347","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1177\/1466802504042222"},{"key":"bibr32-10778012231174347","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1363\/psrh.12041"},{"key":"bibr33-10778012231174347","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jad.2017.03.009"},{"key":"bibr34-10778012231174347","volume-title":"Crime victims: An introduction to victimology","author":"Karmen A.","year":"2015"},{"key":"bibr35-10778012231174347","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1097\/HRP.0000000000000065"},{"key":"bibr36-10778012231174347","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1080\/10683160801932380"},{"key":"bibr37-10778012231174347","unstructured":"Lawson K. (2018, June 11).\n                      Half of the country doesn\u2019t have a legal definition of consent\n                      . Vice. https:\/\/www.vice.com\/en\/article\/bj3p35\/state-definition-of-consent-legislation"},{"key":"bibr38-10778012231174347","first-page":"1321\u20131364","volume":"58","author":"Little N. J.","year":"2005","journal-title":"Vanderbilt Law Review"},{"key":"bibr39-10778012231174347","first-page":"431","author":"Mackinnon C. A.","year":"2016","journal-title":"Harvard Law and Policy Review"},{"key":"bibr40-10778012231174347","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1468-2850.2008.00112.x"},{"key":"bibr41-10778012231174347","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1559-1816.1990.tb00375.x"},{"key":"bibr42-10778012231174347","volume-title":"Everything you want to know about consent but were afraid to ask","author":"McDermott R."},{"key":"bibr43-10778012231174347","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1192\/bjp.152.3.330"},{"key":"bibr44-10778012231174347","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/aogs.13174"},{"key":"bibr45-10778012231174347","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1177\/1077801204264367"},{"key":"bibr46-10778012231174347","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1891\/0886-6708.15.2.187"},{"key":"bibr47-10778012231174347","unstructured":"RAINN (Rape, Abuse and Incest National Network). (2021, January 6).\n                      Consent laws.\n                      https:\/\/apps.rainn.org\/policy\/compare\/consent-laws.cfm"},{"key":"bibr48-10778012231174347","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3138\/cjwl.22.2.397"},{"key":"bibr49-10778012231174347","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1177\/0886260508314851"},{"key":"bibr50-10778012231174347","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/1471-6402.00030"},{"key":"bibr51-10778012231174347","volume-title":"Sexual assault may trigger involuntary paralysis","author":"Russo F."},{"issue":"1","key":"bibr52-10778012231174347","first-page":"1","volume":"8","author":"Schiewe M.","year":"2019","journal-title":"DePaul Journal of Women Gender & Law"},{"key":"bibr53-10778012231174347","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jbtep.2007.08.002"},{"key":"bibr54-10778012231174347","volume-title":"Tonic immobility questionnaire\u2014Revised.","author":"Taylor S.","year":"2007"},{"key":"bibr55-10778012231174347","unstructured":"Tracy C. E., Fromson T. L., Long J. G., Whitman C. (2012).\n                      Rape and sexual assault in the legal system\n                      . National Research Council of the National Academies Panel on Measuring Rape and Sexual Assault in the Bureau of Justice Statistics Household Surveys Committee on National Statistics. https:\/\/sites.nationalacademies.org\/cs\/groups\/dbassesite\/documents\/webpage\/dbasse_080060.pdf"},{"key":"bibr56-10778012231174347","first-page":"441","volume":"13","author":"Tuerkheimer D.","year":"2015","journal-title":"Ohio State Journal of Criminal Law"},{"key":"bibr57-10778012231174347","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1177\/0093854806297117"},{"key":"bibr58-10778012231174347","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1177\/1077801214526308"},{"key":"bibr59-10778012231174347","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1177\/088626092007001003"},{"key":"bibr60-10778012231174347","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1046\/j.1440-1819.1998.0520s5S97.x"},{"key":"bibr61-10778012231174347","unstructured":"Wade B. (2017).\n                      The impact of California Senate Bill 967 on reporting of sexual assault on college campuses\n                      [Unpublished master\u2019s thesis]. Duke University."},{"key":"bibr62-10778012231174347","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1080\/15546128.2018.1443300"},{"key":"bibr63-10778012231174347","unstructured":"World Health Organization. (n.d.).\n                      Sexual violence: Prevalence, dynamics, and consequences.\n                      http:\/\/www.who.int\/violence_injury_prevention\/resources\/publications\/en\/guidelines_chap2.pdf."}],"container-title":["Violence Against Women"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/journals.sagepub.com\/doi\/pdf\/10.1177\/10778012231174347","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/journals.sagepub.com\/doi\/full-xml\/10.1177\/10778012231174347","content-type":"application\/xml","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/journals.sagepub.com\/doi\/pdf\/10.1177\/10778012231174347","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,2]],"date-time":"2026-05-02T01:56:24Z","timestamp":1777686984000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/journals.sagepub.com\/doi\/10.1177\/10778012231174347"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2023,5,19]]},"references-count":63,"journal-issue":{"issue":"12-13","published-print":{"date-parts":[[2024,10]]}},"alternative-id":["10.1177\/10778012231174347"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1177\/10778012231174347","relation":{},"ISSN":["1077-8012","1552-8448"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1077-8012","type":"print"},{"value":"1552-8448","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2023,5,19]]}}}