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The framework is demonstrated through an analysis of content published in 17 Czech Facebook antiestablishment groups, drawing on a dataset of 1.94 million comments and 154 thousand posts. The empirical findings provide further evidence that female politicians are disproportionately targeted by gender-based and violent attacks, which are more frequently perpetrated by male users. The findings also highlight the role of disinformation and media amplification in initiating these attacks.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1177\/10778012261468278","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,14]],"date-time":"2026-07-14T12:56:03Z","timestamp":1784033763000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1177\/sage-journals-update-policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["\u201cNo Woman Belongs to Politics\u201d: Gender-Based Hate Speech Against Female Politicians in Czech Antiestablishment Groups on Facebook"],"prefix":"10.1177","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-7841-9018","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Jan","family":"\u0160vec","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of International Relations Prague"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Zuzana","family":"Schreiberov\u00e1","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Multicultural Center Prague, Prague, Czech Republic"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"179","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,14]]},"reference":[{"key":"e_1_3_4_2_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3390\/bs15121642"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_3_1","unstructured":"Amnesty International. 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