{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,16]],"date-time":"2026-06-16T18:07:19Z","timestamp":1781633239415,"version":"3.54.5"},"reference-count":91,"publisher":"SAGE Publications","issue":"8","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2019,7,5]],"date-time":"2019-07-05T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1562284800000},"content-version":"tdm","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/journals.sagepub.com\/page\/policies\/text-and-data-mining-license"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["journals.sagepub.com"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["Sex Abuse"],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2020,12]]},"abstract":"<jats:p>Empathy has an important role in promoting proper societal functions. Those who violate societal functions, such as those convicted of having committed a criminal offense, are theorized to possess deficits in their empathic capacity. This assumption has been adopted by many criminological models, including for individuals convicted of a sexual offense (ICSO). However, contradictory research results have resulted in conflicting theories regarding the level of empathy within ICSO. This meta-analysis compiled available data to provide empirical clarity in a divided theoretical field. Results of the meta-analysis indicate that ICSO have lower levels of cognitive (Hedges\u2019s g = \u2212.303, p = .007) and general empathy (Hedges\u2019s g = \u2212.188, p = .020) than those in the general population but do not have significantly lower levels of affective empathy (Hedges\u2019s g = .023, p = .849). Several moderator analyses were conducted, including type of sexual offense, assessment instrument used, and age at conviction.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1177\/1079063219858062","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2019,7,5]],"date-time":"2019-07-05T04:56:16Z","timestamp":1562302576000},"page":"883-906","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1177\/sage-journals-update-policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":22,"title":["Cognitive, Affective, and General Empathy in Individuals Convicted of a Sexual Offense: A Meta-Analysis"],"prefix":"10.1177","volume":"32","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-2514-971X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Elijah Paul","family":"Morrow","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"The Chicago School of Professional Psychology, Los Angeles, CA, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"179","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2019,7,5]]},"reference":[{"key":"bibr1-1079063219858062","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.paid.2011.07.005"},{"key":"bibr2-1079063219858062","volume-title":"The social work dictionary","author":"Barker R. L.","year":"2008"},{"key":"bibr3-1079063219858062","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.avb.2012.11.010"},{"key":"bibr4-1079063219858062","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1023\/B:JADD.0000022607.19833.00"},{"key":"bibr5-1079063219858062","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biopsych.2010.11.007"},{"key":"bibr6-1079063219858062","author":"Beavin L. E.","year":"2014","journal-title":"Oxytocin and empathy in sex offenders: A biological basis for deficiencies in empathic responding"},{"key":"bibr7-1079063219858062","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1017\/s0140525x02280012"},{"key":"bibr8-1079063219858062","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1037\/cou0000093"},{"key":"bibr9-1079063219858062","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.concog.2005.06.004"},{"key":"bibr10-1079063219858062","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1037\/10226-018"},{"key":"bibr11-1079063219858062","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1080\/00223891.2015.1027346"},{"key":"bibr12-1079063219858062","volume-title":"The safer society handbook of sexual abuser assessment and treatment","author":"Carich M. S.","year":"2014"},{"key":"bibr13-1079063219858062","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1037\/0022-006X.63.2.249"},{"key":"bibr14-1079063219858062","unstructured":"Cornelius J. E. (2001). Empathy levels of child molesters compared to nonsexual offenders and nonoffenders. Retrieved from https:\/\/esirc.emporia.edu\/handle\/123456789\/1095"},{"key":"bibr15-1079063219858062","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.2307\/2087691"},{"key":"bibr16-1079063219858062","author":"Cremer J. M.","year":"1996","journal-title":"Empathy and nurturance: A study of incest offenders"},{"key":"bibr17-1079063219858062","author":"Cuevas C. A.","year":"2004","journal-title":"Obstacles to empathy in sex offenders: Recognition and interpretation of children\u2019s emotional cues"},{"key":"bibr18-1079063219858062","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1177\/1754073914558466"},{"key":"bibr19-1079063219858062","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s10578-007-0075-4"},{"key":"bibr20-1079063219858062","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1177\/107906320301500406"},{"key":"bibr21-1079063219858062","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1037\/0022-3514.44.1.113"},{"key":"bibr22-1079063219858062","unstructured":"Day A., Boni N., Hobbs G., Carson E., Whitting L., Powell M. (2014). Professional attitudes to sex offenders: Implications for multiagency and collaborative working. Sexual Abuse in Australia and New Zealand: An Interdisciplinary Journal, 6, 12-19. Retrieved from https:\/\/www.researchgate.net\/publication\/305355423_Professional_attitudes_to_sex_offenders_implications_for_multiagency_and_collaborative_working"},{"key":"bibr23-1079063219858062","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1159\/000317771"},{"key":"bibr24-1079063219858062","author":"D\u2019Orazio D. M.","year":"2002","journal-title":"A comparative analysis of empathy in sexually offending and nonoffending juvenile and adult males"},{"key":"bibr25-1079063219858062","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1037\/0022-0167.43.3.261"},{"key":"bibr26-1079063219858062","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/BF00915957"},{"key":"bibr27-1079063219858062","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1037\/\/0033-2909.101.1.91"},{"key":"bibr28-1079063219858062","volume-title":"The Rorschach in multimethod forensic assessment: conceptual foundations and practical applications","author":"Erard R. E.","year":"2017"},{"key":"bibr29-1079063219858062","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1177\/001100007500500207"},{"key":"bibr30-1079063219858062","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1348\/000711010X502733"},{"key":"bibr31-1079063219858062","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1177\/0306624x99434006"},{"key":"bibr32-1079063219858062","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.psychres.2007.11.006"},{"key":"bibr33-1079063219858062","author":"Graham S. A.","year":"2003","journal-title":"Assessing emotional responses in sex offenders"},{"key":"bibr34-1079063219858062","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jclinepi.2011.03.017"},{"key":"bibr35-1079063219858062","volume-title":"Predictors of sexual recidivism: An updated meta-analysis","author":"Hanson R. K.","year":"2004"},{"key":"bibr36-1079063219858062","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1037\/0022-006X.73.6.1154"},{"key":"bibr37-1079063219858062","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1177\/088626095010001007"},{"key":"bibr38-1079063219858062","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1037\/0022-006X.50.4.546"},{"key":"bibr39-1079063219858062","first-page":"236","volume-title":"Relapse prevention with sexual offenders","author":"Hildebran D.","year":"1989"},{"key":"bibr40-1079063219858062","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/jir.12137"},{"key":"bibr41-1079063219858062","first-page":"169","volume-title":"Nebraska symposium of motivation","volume":"25","author":"Hoffman M. L.","year":"1977"},{"key":"bibr42-1079063219858062","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1037\/h0027580"},{"key":"bibr43-1079063219858062","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.avb.2003.03.001"},{"key":"bibr44-1079063219858062","author":"Jones J. L.","year":"2010","journal-title":"Attachment, empathy and psychopathy in a sex offending sample"},{"key":"bibr45-1079063219858062","volume-title":"The complete adult psychotherapy treatment planner","author":"Jongsma A. E.","year":"2014"},{"key":"bibr46-1079063219858062","volume-title":"Nationwide survey of juvenile and adult sex offender treatment programs and models","author":"Knopp F. H.","year":"1992"},{"key":"bibr47-1079063219858062","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lam T. C. M., Kolomitrio K., Alamparambil F. C. (2011). Empathy training: Methods, evaluation practices, and validity. Journal of Multidisciplinary Evaluation, 7, 162-200. Retrieved from http:\/\/journals.sfu.ca\/jmde\/index.php\/jmde_1\/article\/view\/314\/327","DOI":"10.56645\/jmde.v7i16.314"},{"key":"bibr48-1079063219858062","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1017\/S0033291703001624"},{"key":"bibr49-1079063219858062","volume-title":"Desistance and sexual offending: Alternative to throwing away the keys","author":"Laws D. R.","year":"2011"},{"key":"bibr50-1079063219858062","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1177\/1079063208326072"},{"key":"bibr51-1079063219858062","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1177\/1079063208325205"},{"key":"bibr52-1079063219858062","author":"Lieber F. W.","year":"1995","journal-title":"The legacy of empathy: History of a psychological concept"},{"key":"bibr53-1079063219858062","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1353\/csd.0.0095"},{"key":"bibr54-1079063219858062","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1177\/088626001016006002"},{"key":"bibr55-1079063219858062","unstructured":"Liu J. (2015). Statistical power in meta-analysis (Doctoral dissertation). Retrieved from http:\/\/scholarcommons.sc.edu\/etd\/3221"},{"key":"bibr56-1079063219858062","author":"Lo Q. H.","year":"2007","journal-title":"The relationship of self-compassion and self-esteem to empathy, shame, and social functioning in adolescents who offend sexually"},{"key":"bibr57-1079063219858062","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1177\/0093854891018003003"},{"key":"bibr58-1079063219858062","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1177\/1079063212455669"},{"key":"bibr59-1079063219858062","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/0272-7358(95)00002-7"},{"key":"bibr60-1079063219858062","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1300\/J070v05n02_06"},{"key":"bibr61-1079063219858062","volume-title":"Treating sexual offenders: An integrated approach","author":"Marshall W. L.","year":"2006"},{"key":"bibr62-1079063219858062","volume-title":"An introduction to social psychology","author":"McDougall W.","year":"1923"},{"key":"bibr63-1079063219858062","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1177\/107906329801000104"},{"key":"bibr64-1079063219858062","volume-title":"Current practices and emerging trends in sexual abuser management: The Safer Society 2009 North American survey","author":"McGrath R. J.","year":"2010"},{"key":"bibr65-1079063219858062","unstructured":"Mehrabian A. (1996). Manual for the Balanced Emotional Empathy Scale (BEES). Retrieved from http:\/\/www.kaaj.com\/psych\/scales\/emp.html"},{"key":"bibr66-1079063219858062","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/(SICI)1098-2337(1997)23:6<433::AID-AB3>3.0.CO;2-H"},{"key":"bibr67-1079063219858062","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1467-6494.1972.tb00078.x"},{"key":"bibr68-1079063219858062","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s10979-010-9221-9"},{"key":"bibr69-1079063219858062","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1006\/jado.2001.0441"},{"key":"bibr70-1079063219858062","author":"Moulden H. M.","year":"2008","journal-title":"Social competence and sexual aggression: Social intelligence, cognitive distortions, and victim empathy in men who sexually offend against children"},{"key":"bibr71-1079063219858062","unstructured":"Moulden H. M., Marshall W. L. (2001). Social intelligence, empathy, and aggression in sexual offenders. (Unpublished manuscript), Queen\u2019s University, Kingston, Ontario, Canada."},{"key":"bibr72-1079063219858062","unstructured":"Mulloy R., Smiley W. C., Mawson D. L. (1999). The impact of empathy training on offender treatment. Focus on Corrections Research, 11, 15-18. Retrieved from http:\/\/www.csc-scc.gc.ca\/research\/forum\/e111\/e111d-eng.shtml"},{"key":"bibr73-1079063219858062","unstructured":"Orthopedagogiek M. (2014). A comparison study between male juvenile sex offenders and juvenile non-offenders regarding cognitive and affective empathy. Retrieved from http:\/\/www.scriptiesonline.uba.uva.nl\/document\/612425"},{"key":"bibr74-1079063219858062","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1057\/9780230347809"},{"key":"bibr75-1079063219858062","author":"Pickett L. A.","year":"2006","journal-title":"Trait versus state empathy: Evaluating the stability of empathy and the relationship between negative affect and empathy in an incarcerated sex offender population"},{"key":"bibr76-1079063219858062","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1177\/088626099014003004"},{"key":"bibr77-1079063219858062","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s11299-014-0160-X"},{"key":"bibr78-1079063219858062","unstructured":"Preston D., Murphy W. D. (1996). The Empathy Skills Questionnaire. (Unpublished manuscript), Kingston, Ontario, Canada."},{"key":"bibr79-1079063219858062","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1080\/03033910.2011.610191"},{"key":"bibr80-1079063219858062","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1037\/0033-2909.86.3.638"},{"key":"bibr81-1079063219858062","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1749-6632.2009.04418.x"},{"key":"bibr82-1079063219858062","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1037\/h0055873"},{"key":"bibr83-1079063219858062","author":"Sturgeon C. L.","year":"2004","journal-title":"Typology of violence and alexithymia, empathy, perfectionism, and substance abuse in federal offenders"},{"key":"bibr84-1079063219858062","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1027\/1901-2276\/a000043"},{"key":"bibr85-1079063219858062","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1023\/A:1010239217517"},{"key":"bibr86-1079063219858062","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1037\/10877-000"},{"key":"bibr87-1079063219858062","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1080\/13552600701661573"},{"key":"bibr88-1079063219858062","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1080\/13552600412331321323"},{"key":"bibr89-1079063219858062","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.18637\/jss.v049.i05"},{"key":"bibr90-1079063219858062","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1037\/h0100986"},{"key":"bibr91-1079063219858062","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1177\/0093854800027003004"}],"container-title":["Sexual Abuse"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/journals.sagepub.com\/doi\/pdf\/10.1177\/1079063219858062","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/journals.sagepub.com\/doi\/full-xml\/10.1177\/1079063219858062","content-type":"application\/xml","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/journals.sagepub.com\/doi\/pdf\/10.1177\/1079063219858062","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,2]],"date-time":"2026-05-02T02:38:19Z","timestamp":1777689499000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/journals.sagepub.com\/doi\/10.1177\/1079063219858062"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2019,7,5]]},"references-count":91,"journal-issue":{"issue":"8","published-print":{"date-parts":[[2020,12]]}},"alternative-id":["10.1177\/1079063219858062"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1177\/1079063219858062","relation":{},"ISSN":["1079-0632","1573-286X"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1079-0632","type":"print"},{"value":"1573-286X","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2019,7,5]]}}}