{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,11,11]],"date-time":"2026-11-11T00:32:09Z","timestamp":1794357129521,"version":"4.9.0"},"reference-count":26,"publisher":"SAGE Publications","issue":"4","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2024,8,30]],"date-time":"2024-08-30T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1724976000000},"content-version":"unspecified","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-nc\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100000038","name":"Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council of Canada","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100000038","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":["journals.sagepub.com"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["Wilderness &amp; Environmental Medicine"],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2024,12]]},"abstract":"<jats:p>Dr William J. Mills Jr., an Alaskan orthopedic surgeon, helped establish the current protocols for frostbite treatment and changed a dogma used for more than 140 years that was established by Napoleon's surgeon general of the army, Baron Dominique-Jean Larrey. During Napoleon's 1812 siege of Moscow, Larrey noticed the destructive effects of using open fire heat for warming frozen body parts, so he suggested rubbing snow or immersion in cold water. Dr Mills treated many cold injuries during his medical career. After setting up his medical practice in Anchorage, Alaska, he realized the inefficiency of the established protocols and started researching new treatments for frostbite. Dr Mills followed Meryman's method of rapidly thawing frozen red blood cells in warm water. Mills and his colleagues established a treatment protocol for freezing cold injury that included rapid warming in warm water. These studies resulted in the publication of three key papers in 1960 and 1961. These papers were the first clinical studies that described rapid warming as a treatment. Subsequently, rapid warming, with some variation in water temperatures, has been accepted as the standard of treatment. Due to his outstanding contribution to the treatment of frostbite, he has been referred to as \u201cthe nation's leading authority on cold injury.\u201d Mills and his colleagues created a new classification system that divided frostbite into two levels, superficial and deep, which was more applicable in clinics than the traditional 4-tier classification. The 2-tier classification is still useful outside of the hospital setting.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1177\/10806032241273497","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2024,8,30]],"date-time":"2024-08-30T06:13:38Z","timestamp":1724998418000},"page":"496-505","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1177\/sage-journals-update-policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":3,"title":["Keep Cool but Don\u2019t Freeze: The Influence of William J. Mills Jr. on the Treatment of Frostbite"],"prefix":"10.1177","volume":"35","author":[{"given":"Maryam","family":"Gharraei","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Kinesiology and Recreation Management, University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, Canada"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-4928-840X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Ken","family":"Zafren","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Emergency Medicine, Stanford University Medical Center, Stanford, CA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Rodrigo","family":"Villar","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Kinesiology and Recreation Management, University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, Canada"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Gordon G.","family":"Giesbrecht","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Kinesiology and Recreation Management, University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, Canada"},{"name":"Faculty of Medicine, Departments of Anesthesia and Emergency Medicine, University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, Canada"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"179","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,8,30]]},"reference":[{"key":"bibr1-10806032241273497","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1177\/10806032231222359"},{"key":"bibr2-10806032241273497","first-page":"1","author":"Rodway GW","journal-title":"Wild Environ Med"},{"key":"bibr3-10806032241273497","volume-title":"Surgical memoirs of the campaigns of Russia, Germany and France","author":"Larrey DJ","year":"1832"},{"key":"bibr4-10806032241273497","first-page":"313","volume":"2001","author":"Paton BC","journal-title":"In: Medical Aspects of Harsh Environments"},{"key":"bibr5-10806032241273497","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3402\/ijch.v63i3.17714"},{"issue":"2","key":"bibr6-10806032241273497","first-page":"1","volume":"33","author":"Zafren K","year":"2012","journal-title":"Response"},{"key":"bibr7-10806032241273497","volume-title":"Monograph on frostbite","author":"Ariev TJ","year":"1955"},{"key":"bibr8-10806032241273497","first-page":"429","volume":"1","author":"Mills WJ","journal-title":"In: Medical Aspects Of Harsh Environments"},{"key":"bibr9-10806032241273497","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1126\/science.124.3221.515"},{"key":"bibr10-10806032241273497","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1152\/physrev.1957.37.2.233"},{"key":"bibr11-10806032241273497","first-page":"5\u2013","volume":"35","author":"Mills WJ","journal-title":"Alaska Med"},{"key":"bibr12-10806032241273497","first-page":"10","volume":"2","author":"Mills WJ","year":"1960","journal-title":"Alaska Med"},{"key":"bibr13-10806032241273497","first-page":"19","volume":"35","author":"Mills WJ","year":"1961","journal-title":"Alaska Med"},{"key":"bibr14-10806032241273497","first-page":"1","volume":"35","author":"Alaska State Med Assoc","year":"1993","journal-title":"Alaska Med"},{"key":"bibr15-10806032241273497","first-page":"27","volume":"15","author":"Mills WJ","year":"1973","journal-title":"Alaska Med"},{"key":"bibr16-10806032241273497","first-page":"70","volume":"35","author":"Mills WJ","year":"1993","journal-title":"Alaska Med"},{"key":"bibr17-10806032241273497","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1136\/jrnms-49-237"},{"key":"bibr18-10806032241273497","first-page":"33","volume":"25","author":"Mills WJ","year":"1983","journal-title":"Alaska Med"},{"key":"bibr19-10806032241273497","first-page":"383","volume":"5","author":"Mills WJ","journal-title":"Encycl Hum Biol"},{"key":"bibr20-10806032241273497","first-page":"1","author":"Mills WJ","year":"1960","journal-title":"Arctic Aeromedical Laboratory (U.S.)"},{"key":"bibr21-10806032241273497","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s002590050534"},{"key":"bibr22-10806032241273497","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1580\/1080-6032(2001)012[0248:RSOCOS]2.0.CO;2"},{"key":"bibr23-10806032241273497","first-page":"56","volume":"15","author":"Mills WJ","year":"1973","journal-title":"Alaska Med"},{"key":"bibr24-10806032241273497","first-page":"131","volume":"35","author":"Kappes B","year":"1993","journal-title":"Alaska Med"},{"key":"bibr25-10806032241273497","first-page":"21","volume":"25","author":"Mills WJ","year":"1983","journal-title":"Alaska Med"},{"key":"bibr26-10806032241273497","first-page":"89","volume":"35","author":"Mills WJ","year":"1993","journal-title":"Alaska Med"}],"container-title":["Wilderness &amp; 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