{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,31]],"date-time":"2026-10-31T22:17:06Z","timestamp":1793485026493,"version":"4.5.0"},"reference-count":82,"publisher":"SAGE Publications","issue":"2","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,9,25]],"date-time":"2025-09-25T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1758758400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"},{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,9,25]],"date-time":"2025-09-25T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1758758400000},"content-version":"tdm","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/journals.sagepub.com\/page\/policies\/text-and-data-mining-license"}],"funder":[{"name":"Erasmus MC Fellowship","award":["Awarded to S.E. Herrman-Mous"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["Awarded to S.E. Herrman-Mous"]}]},{"name":"Sophia Children\u2019s Hospital Fund","award":["B17-04"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["B17-04"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":["journals.sagepub.com"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["Autism"],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2026,2]]},"abstract":"<jats:p>Autism is heterogenic in core and co-occurring characteristics. Subtyping autism in a longitudinal manner aids the understanding of autism development throughout life and thus enhances personalized support. In this systematic review, we summarized the literature on latent core autism characteristics trajectories and trajectories of other functional domains in autistic individuals and identified predictors of trajectory assignment. We searched Embase, Medline, PsycINFO, Cochrane Central, Web of Science, and Google Scholar until April 22, 2025. We included longitudinal observational studies that applied statistical subtyping methods on core autism characteristics or other functional domains in autistic individuals. A total of 30 eligible analyses were included. The included analyses investigated core autism characteristics (10), adaptive behavior (10), behavioral problems (7), adverse childhood experiences (1), cognitive development (1), and feeding problems (1). For each domain, we found differing numbers and shapes of trajectories. Cognitive development was predictive of core autism symptom trajectory classifications, where cognitive development was generally lower in more severely affected core autism symptom trajectories. We found mixed results for other predictors. Future studies should focus on understudied outcome domains, such as motor coordination or sleep problems. In addition, more research is needed to understand when and why individuals deviate from their subgroup trajectory.<\/jats:p>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Lay abstract<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>Autistic people can have very different characteristics. Investigating groups based on their characteristics over time can improve our understanding of how autistic people develop and why development can differ between people. We reviewed studies that group autistic individuals based on their development of autistic features and other characteristics. We included 30 analyses and summarized their findings. The studies show that there are different ways autistic individuals develop based on core autistic characteristics (social difficulties and focused, intense and repetitive behaviors, interests and activities), as well as for adaptive behavior, behavioral problems, cognitive development, and feeding problems. For core characteristics, lower cognitive abilities seemed to be related to less favorable developmental pathways. This review showed that autistic people may show distinct patterns of development in core characteristics and other domains. We also highlight that some domains of functioning, such as motor coordination and sleeping problems, are not studied in the literature and future studies should focus on these domains as well since these are difficulties that autistic people often face. Identifying distinct developmental patterns in autistic children can help to predict the outcome of autistic people and may aid in offering personalized support.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>","DOI":"10.1177\/13623613251370818","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,9,25]],"date-time":"2025-09-25T11:14:25Z","timestamp":1758798865000},"page":"285-299","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1177\/sage-journals-update-policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":3,"title":["Latent trajectories in autistic individuals: A systematic review"],"prefix":"10.1177","volume":"30","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0004-0338-3366","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Kamil R","family":"Hiralal","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Erasmus Medical Center\u2014Sophia Children\u2019s Hospital, The Netherlands"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-9700-5606","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Gwendolyn C","family":"Dieleman","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Erasmus Medical Center\u2014Sophia Children\u2019s Hospital, The Netherlands"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0001-2877-1881","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Britt R","family":"Kok","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Erasmus Medical Center\u2014Sophia Children\u2019s Hospital, The Netherlands"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0002-0324-2630","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Luka D","family":"Diederen","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Erasmus Medical Center\u2014Sophia Children\u2019s Hospital, The Netherlands"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0009-0942-1972","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Rana P","family":"Duman","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Erasmus Medical Center\u2014Sophia Children\u2019s Hospital, The Netherlands"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-4877-282X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Manon HJ","family":"Hillegers","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Erasmus Medical Center\u2014Sophia Children\u2019s Hospital, The Netherlands"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-9088-8095","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Sabine E","family":"Mous","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Erasmus Medical Center\u2014Sophia Children\u2019s Hospital, The Netherlands"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"179","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,9,25]]},"reference":[{"key":"e_1_3_3_2_1","first-page":"429","volume-title":"The use of psychological testing for treatment planning and outcomes assessment","author":"Achenbach T. M.","year":"1999","unstructured":"Achenbach T. M. (1999). The Child Behavior Checklist and related instruments. In The use of psychological testing for treatment planning and outcomes assessment (2nd ed., pp. 429\u2013466). Lawrence Erlbaum Associates Publishers.","edition":"2"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_3_1","volume-title":"Manual for the ASEBA adult forms & profiles","author":"Achenbach T. M.","year":"2003","unstructured":"Achenbach T. M., Rescorla L. A. (2003). Manual for the ASEBA adult forms & profiles. University of Vermont."},{"key":"e_1_3_3_4_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cpr.2021.102033"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_5_1","volume-title":"Aberrant Behavior Checklist (ABC)","author":"Aman M. G.","year":"1985","unstructured":"Aman M. G., Singh N. N., Stewart A. W., Field C. J. (1985). Aberrant Behavior Checklist (ABC) [Database record]. APA PsycTests."},{"key":"e_1_3_3_6_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1176\/appi.books.9780890425596"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_7_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1037\/0022-006X.75.4.594"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_8_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1352\/1944-7558-116.5.381"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_9_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s10802-009-9326-0"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_10_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s10803-011-1357-z"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_11_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/aur.2022"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_12_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1177\/1362361315575840"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_13_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1192\/bjp.2020.127"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_14_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1469-7610.2008.01899.x"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_15_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jaac.2024.11.004"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_16_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.chc.2010.07.005"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_17_1","article-title":"Trajectories of adaptive functioning from early childhood to adolescence in autism: Identifying turning points and key correlates of chronogeneity","author":"Chen Y.-J.","year":"2023","unstructured":"Chen Y.-J., Duku E., Szatmari P., Salt M., Smith I., Richard A., Zwaigenbaum L., Vaillancourt T., Zaidman-Zait A., Bennett T., Elsabbagh M., Kerns C., Georgiades S. (2023). Trajectories of adaptive functioning from early childhood to adolescence in autism: Identifying turning points and key correlates of chronogeneity. JCPP Advances, e12212.","journal-title":"JCPP Advances"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_18_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rasd.2023.102203"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_19_1","first-page":"1","article-title":"Social competence as a predictor of adult outcomes in autism spectrum disorder","author":"Clarke E. B.","year":"2023","unstructured":"Clarke E. B., Lord C. (2023). Social competence as a predictor of adult outcomes in autism spectrum disorder. Development and Psychopathology, 1\u201316.","journal-title":"Development and Psychopathology"},{"issue":"12","key":"e_1_3_3_20_1","first-page":"1342","article-title":"Post-high school daily living skills in autism spectrum disorders","volume":"59","author":"Clarke E. B.","year":"2021","unstructured":"Clarke E. B., McCauley J. B., Lorde C. (2021). Post-high school daily living skills in autism spectrum disorders. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 59(12), 1342\u20131352.","journal-title":"Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_21_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/aur.2606"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_22_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1097\/00004703-199406000-00001"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_23_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3389\/fpsyt.2022.998195"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_24_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.4103\/1817-1745.174438"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_25_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1023\/B:JOQC.0000016696.02763.ce"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_26_1","first-page":"360","volume-title":"Contemporary intellectual assessment: Theories, tests, and issues","author":"Elliott C. D.","year":"2018","unstructured":"Elliott C. D., Salerno J. D., Dumont R., Willis J. O. (2018). The Differential Ability Scales\u2013Second Edition. In Contemporary intellectual assessment: Theories, tests, and issues (4th ed., pp. 360\u2013382). The Guilford Press.","edition":"4"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_27_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1186\/s11689-017-9222-9"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_28_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1542\/peds.2011-1601"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_29_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1542\/peds.2022-058674"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_30_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s10803-010-0981-3"},{"issue":"3","key":"e_1_3_3_31_1","article-title":"Behavioral and cognitive characteristics of females and males with autism in the Simons Simplex Collection","volume":"53","author":"Frazier T. W.","year":"2014","unstructured":"Frazier T. W., Georgiades S., Bishop S. L., Hardan A. Y. (2014). Behavioral and cognitive characteristics of females and males with autism in the Simons Simplex Collection. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 53(3), 329\u2013340 e321\u2013323.","journal-title":"Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_32_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/jcpp.12690"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_33_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s10803-021-04949-2"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_34_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.conb.2007.01.009"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_35_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1542\/peds.2011-3668"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_36_1","article-title":"The Autism Diagnostic Observation Schedule (ADOS)","author":"Gotham K.","year":"2006","unstructured":"Gotham K., Risi S., Pickles A., Lord C. (2006). The Autism Diagnostic Observation Schedule (ADOS). Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders.","journal-title":"Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_37_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1177\/1362361317706174"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_38_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/cl2.1230"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_39_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/nn1770"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_40_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1017\/S0033291718002283"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_41_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s43440-021-00244-0"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_42_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1177\/1362361317733182"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_43_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.eclinm.2024.102586"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_44_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/s41398-023-02374-w"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_45_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jaac.2018.05.026"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_46_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/S2215-0366(19)30289-5"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_47_1","article-title":"Experiences of racism and racial disparities in health care among children and youth with autism and their caregivers: A systematic review","author":"Lindsay S.","year":"2024","unstructured":"Lindsay S., Li Y., Joneja S., Hsu S. (2024). Experiences of racism and racial disparities in health care among children and youth with autism and their caregivers: A systematic review. Disability and Rehabilitation.","journal-title":"Disability and Rehabilitation"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_48_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1001\/jamanetworkopen.2022.51182"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_49_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/s41380-018-0321-0"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_50_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jaac.2017.03.013"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_51_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1037\/a0027214"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_52_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/BF02172145"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_53_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3389\/fpubh.2021.641605"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_54_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1214\/14-AOAS769"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_55_1","article-title":"Development of restricted and repetitive behaviors from 2-19: Stability and change in repetitive sensorimotor behaviors, insistence on sameness, and verbal behaviors in a longitudinal study of autism","author":"Masjedi N.","year":"2024","unstructured":"Masjedi N., Clarke E. B., Lord C. (2024). Development of restricted and repetitive behaviors from 2-19: Stability and change in repetitive sensorimotor behaviors, insistence on sameness, and verbal behaviors in a longitudinal study of autism. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders.","journal-title":"Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_56_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1017\/S0954579420000826"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_57_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/s41380-018-0277-0"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_58_1","volume-title":"Mullen Scales of Early Learning","author":"Mullen E. M.","year":"1995","unstructured":"Mullen E. M. (1995). Mullen Scales of Early Learning (AGS ed.). American Guidance Service."},{"key":"e_1_3_3_59_1","article-title":"Prevalence of autism spectrum disorder in a large Italian catchment area: A school-based population study within the ASDEU project","volume":"29","author":"Narzisi A.","year":"2018","unstructured":"Narzisi A., Posada M., Barbieri F., Chericoni N., Ciuffolini D., Pinzino M., Romano R., Scattoni M. L., Tancredi R., Calderoni S., Muratori F. (2018). Prevalence of autism spectrum disorder in a large Italian catchment area: A school-based population study within the ASDEU project. Epidemiology and Psychiatric Sciences, 29, e5.","journal-title":"Epidemiology and Psychiatric Sciences"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_60_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rasd.2017.09.006"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_61_1","article-title":"PRISMA 2020 explanation and elaboration: Updated guidance and exemplars for reporting systematic reviews","volume":"372","author":"Page M. J.","year":"2021","unstructured":"Page M. J., Moher D., Bossuyt P. M., Boutron I., Hoffmann T. C., Mulrow C. D., Shamseer L., Tetzlaff J. M., Akl E. A., Brennan S. E., Chou R., Glanville J., Grimshaw J. M., Hr\u00f3bjartsson A., Lalu M. M., Li T., Loder E. W., Mayo-Wilson E., McDonald S., . . .McKenzie J. E. (2021). PRISMA 2020 explanation and elaboration: Updated guidance and exemplars for reporting systematic reviews. BMJ, 372, n160.","journal-title":"BMJ"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_62_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rasd.2020.101671"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_63_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1093\/jpepsy\/jsz033"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_64_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/jcpp.12269"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_65_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1177\/0165025409343765"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_66_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1017\/S0954579425000021"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_67_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1017\/S0954579409990265"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_68_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rasd.2021.101876"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_69_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1177\/1362361320967790"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_70_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1186\/s13229-019-0260-x"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_71_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1044\/1092-4388(2007\/013)"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_72_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/jcv2.12127"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_73_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/aur.1884"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_74_1","volume-title":"Vineland Adaptive Behavior Scales, Second Edition (Vineland-II)","author":"Sparrow S. S.","year":"2005","unstructured":"Sparrow S. S., Cicchetti D., Balla D. A. (2005). Vineland Adaptive Behavior Scales, Second Edition (Vineland-II). APA PsycTests."},{"key":"e_1_3_3_75_1","article-title":"ROBINS-I: A tool for assessing risk of bias in non-randomised studies of interventions","volume":"355","author":"Sterne J. A. C.","year":"2016","unstructured":"Sterne J. A. C., Hern\u00e1n M. A., Reeves B. C., Savovi\u0107 J., Berkman N. D., Viswanathan M., Henry D., Altman D. G., Ansari M. T., Boutron I. (2016). ROBINS-I: A tool for assessing risk of bias in non-randomised studies of interventions. BMJ, 355.","journal-title":"BMJ"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_76_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1001\/jamapsychiatry.2014.2463"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_77_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1177\/1362361318815645"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_78_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1177\/0963721413485087"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_79_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1017\/S0954579416000043"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_80_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1080\/10705511.2016.1247646"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_81_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s10803-013-1903-y"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_82_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.7326\/M18-1376"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_83_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1017\/S095457941500108X"}],"container-title":["Autism"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/journals.sagepub.com\/doi\/pdf\/10.1177\/13623613251370818","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/journals.sagepub.com\/doi\/full-xml\/10.1177\/13623613251370818","content-type":"application\/xml","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/journals.sagepub.com\/doi\/pdf\/10.1177\/13623613251370818","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,28]],"date-time":"2026-04-28T12:50:50Z","timestamp":1777380650000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/journals.sagepub.com\/doi\/10.1177\/13623613251370818"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2025,9,25]]},"references-count":82,"journal-issue":{"issue":"2","published-print":{"date-parts":[[2026,2]]}},"alternative-id":["10.1177\/13623613251370818"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1177\/13623613251370818","relation":{},"ISSN":["1362-3613","1461-7005"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1362-3613","type":"print"},{"value":"1461-7005","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2025,9,25]]}}}