{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,16]],"date-time":"2026-10-16T20:42:37Z","timestamp":1792183357538,"version":"4.4.0"},"reference-count":64,"publisher":"SAGE Publications","issue":"6","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,20]],"date-time":"2026-04-20T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1776643200000},"content-version":"tdm","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/journals.sagepub.com\/page\/policies\/text-and-data-mining-license"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/100016395","name":"National Center for Special Education Research, Institute of Education Sciences","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["R324A200166"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["R324A200166"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100016395","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":["journals.sagepub.com"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["Autism"],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2026,6]]},"abstract":"<jats:p>\n                    Whether and to what extent sociodemographic disparities in school-based autism identification have been occurring in U.S. elementary schools is currently unclear. We investigated for disparities attributable to race, ethnicity, biological sex, family income, and language use by analyzing repeated cross-sectional data collected on very large samples of U.S. fourth graders participating in the National Assessment of Educational Progress from 2003 to 2022 (\n                    <jats:italic toggle=\"yes\">n<\/jats:italic>\n                    s\u2009=\u2009103,150\u2013205,860). Multivariable logistic regression models accounting for potential confounds including student-level academic achievement and school-level resources repeatedly indicated that students of color, females, students from low-income families, and multilingual learners (MLs) are less likely to be identified with autism while attending U.S. elementary schools. These disparities have been largely stable over time, particularly for Black students, females, and MLs. Health and educational policies that ensure equal access to autism supports and services in U.S. elementary schools including by students from historically marginalized communities are warranted.\n                  <\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1177\/13623613261434432","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,20]],"date-time":"2026-04-20T08:20:36Z","timestamp":1776673236000},"page":"1488-1503","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1177\/sage-journals-update-policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":2,"title":["Over-Time Estimates of Sociodemographic Disparities in Autism Identification in U.S. Elementary Schools"],"prefix":"10.1177","volume":"30","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-9347-6486","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Paul L.","family":"Morgan","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"University at Albany, SUNY, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-2113-3940","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Eric","family":"Hengyu Hu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"University at Albany, SUNY, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"179","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,20]]},"reference":[{"key":"e_1_3_2_2_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Batz R. Yadav A. (2024). Parents\u2019 experiences navigating early intervention and early childhood special education services: A qualitative metasynthesis. Journal of Early Intervention 46(1) 19\u201338. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1177\/10538151231164902","DOI":"10.1177\/10538151231164902"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_3_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Beckman P. S. Brunson McClain M. Harris B. Brownell A. Beauchesne B. M. Davis G. Bera J. Shahid R. (2025). Autism disproportionality in racially and ethnically minoritized and girl students in schools. Autism 29(4) 907\u2013919. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1177\/13623613241293046","DOI":"10.1177\/13623613241293046"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_4_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bilaver L. A. Havlicek J. (2019). Racial and ethnic disparities in autism-related health and educational services. Journal of Developmental & Behavioral Pediatrics 40(7) 501\u2013510. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1097\/DBP.0000000000000700","DOI":"10.1097\/DBP.0000000000000700"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_5_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bilaver L. A. Sobotka S. A. Mandell D. S. (2021). Understanding racial and ethnic disparities in autism-related service use among Medicaid-enrolled children. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders 51(9) 3341\u20133355. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s10803-020-04797-6","DOI":"10.1007\/s10803-020-04797-6"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_6_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bishop-Fitzpatrick L. Kind A. J. H. (2017). A scoping review of health disparities in autism spectrum disorder. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders 47(11) 3380\u20133391. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s10803-017-3251-9","DOI":"10.1007\/s10803-017-3251-9"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_7_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Brasher S. Stapel-Wax J. L. Muirhead L. (2022). Racial and ethnic disparities in autism spectrum disorder. Nursing Clinics of North America 57(3) 489\u2013499. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.cnur.2022.04.014","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cnur.2022.04.014"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_8_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Chang A. R. Slopen N. (2024). Racial and ethnic disparities for unmet needs by mental health condition: 2016 to 2021. Pediatrics 153(1) Article e2023062286. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1542\/peds.2023-062286","DOI":"10.1542\/peds.2023-062286"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_9_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1542\/peds.2019-3629"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_10_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Cycyk L. M. Griffin M. Gillis M. Batz R. Underwood Carrasco V. I. Wease S. Lim S. Jade N. Zuckerman K. E. (2025). Part C early intervention procedural safeguard notices: Are they supporting parents to understand their rights? Topics in Early Childhood Special Education 44(4) 330\u2013341. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1177\/02711214241287174","DOI":"10.1177\/02711214241287174"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_11_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Dababnah S. Shaia W. E. Campion K. Nichols H. M. (2018). \u201cWe had to keep pushing\u201d: Caregivers\u2019 perspectives on autism screening and referral practices of black children in primary care. Intellectual and Developmental Disabilities 56(5) 321\u2013336. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1352\/1934-9556-56.5.321","DOI":"10.1352\/1934-9556-56.5.321"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_12_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Dallman A. R. Artis J. Watson L. Wright S. (2021). Systematic review of disparities and differences in the access and use of allied health services amongst children with autism spectrum disorders. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders 51(4) 1316\u20131330. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s10803-020-04608-y","DOI":"10.1007\/s10803-020-04608-y"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_13_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Daniel J. (2025). The academic achievement gap between students with and without special educational needs and disabilities. European Journal of Special Needs Education 40(3) 539\u2013556. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1080\/08856257.2024.2400771","DOI":"10.1080\/08856257.2024.2400771"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_14_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Duong M. T. Bruns E. J. Lee K. Cox S. Coifman J. Mayworm A. Lyon A. R. (2021). Rates of mental health service utilization by children and adolescents in schools and other common service settings: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Administration and Policy in Mental Health and Mental Health Services Research 48(3) 420\u2013439. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s10488-020-01080-9","DOI":"10.1007\/s10488-020-01080-9"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_15_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Fisher A. P. Lynch J. D. (2025). Differences between Black and White caregivers in the association between autism diagnostic process satisfaction and service use. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders 55(2) 592\u2013604. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s10803-023-06233-x","DOI":"10.1007\/s10803-023-06233-x"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_16_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Fisher A. P. Lynch J. D. Jacquez F. M. Mitchell M. J. Kamimura-Nishimura K. I. Wade S. L. (2023). A systematic review examining caregivers\u2019 of color experiences with the diagnostic process of autism spectrum disorder. Autism 27(4) 876\u2013889. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1177\/13623613221128171","DOI":"10.1177\/13623613221128171"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_17_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Gallegos A. Dudovitz R. Biely C. Chung P. J. Coker T. R. Barnert E. Guerrero A. D. Szilagyi P. G. Nelson B. B. (2021). Racial disparities in developmental delay diagnosis and services received in early childhood. Academic Pediatrics 21(7) 1230\u20131238. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.acap.2021.05.008","DOI":"10.1016\/j.acap.2021.05.008"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_18_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Gallin Z. Kolevzon A. M. Reichenberg A. Hankerson S. H. Kolevzon A. (2025). Racial differences in the prevalence of autism spectrum disorder: A systematic review. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders 55 3364\u2013337. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s10803-024-06403-5","DOI":"10.1007\/s10803-024-06403-5"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_19_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Gray S. A. Zraick R. I. Atcherson S. R. (2019). Readability of individuals with disabilities education act part B procedural safeguards: An update. Language Speech and Hearing Services in Schools 50(3) 373\u2013384. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1044\/2018_LSHSS-18-0057","DOI":"10.1044\/2018_LSHSS-18-0057"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_20_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Guerrero M. G. B. Sobotka S. A. (2022). Understanding the barriers to receiving autism diagnoses for Hispanic and Latinx families. Pediatric Annals 51(4) e167\u2013e171. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3928\/19382359-20220322-03","DOI":"10.3928\/19382359-20220322-03"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_21_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hibel J. Farkas G. Morgan P. L. (2010). Who is placed into special education? Sociology of Education 83(4) 312\u2013332. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1177\/0038040710383518","DOI":"10.1177\/0038040710383518"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_22_1","unstructured":"Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (2004) Sec. 300.8 (c) (1). https:\/\/sites.ed.gov\/idea\/regs\/b\/a\/300.8\/c\/1"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_23_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Institute of Medicine. (2003). Unequal treatment: Confronting racial and ethnic disparities in health care. The National Academies Press. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.17226\/12875","DOI":"10.17226\/12875"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_24_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lajonchere C. M. Wheeler B. Y. Valente T. W. Kreutzer C. Munson A. Narayanan S. Kazemzadeh A. Cruz R. Martinez I. Schrager S. M. Schweitzer L. Chklovski T. Hwang D. (2016). Strategies for disseminating information on biomedical research on autism to Hispanic parents. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders 46(3) 1038\u20131050. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s10803-015-2649-5","DOI":"10.1007\/s10803-015-2649-5"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_25_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lindsay S. Li Y. Joneja S. Hsu S. (2025). Experiences of racism and racial disparities in health care among children and youth with autism and their caregivers: A systematic review. Disability and Rehabilitation 47(5) 1061\u20131080. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1080\/09638288.2024.2364823","DOI":"10.1080\/09638288.2024.2364823"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_26_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Locke J. Kang-Yi C. D. Pellecchia M. Marcus S. Hadley T. Mandell D. S. (2017). Ethnic disparities in school-based behavioral health service use for children with psychiatric disorders. Journal of School Health 87(1) 47\u201354. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1111\/josh.12469","DOI":"10.1111\/josh.12469"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_27_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Maga\u00f1a S. Parish S. L. Son E. (2015). Have racial and ethnic disparities in the quality of health care relationships changed for children with developmental disabilities and ASD? American Journal on Intellectual and Developmental Disabilities 120(6) 504\u2013513. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1352\/1944-7558-120.6.504","DOI":"10.1352\/1944-7558-120.6.504"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_28_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"McDonnell C. G. DeLucia E. A. Hayden E. P. Penner M. Curcin K. Anagnostou E. Nicolson R. Kelley E. Georgiades S. Liu X. Stevenson R. A. (2021). Sex differences in age of diagnosis and first concern among children with autism spectrum disorder. Journal of Clinical Child & Adolescent Psychology 50(5) 645\u2013655. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1080\/15374416.2020.1823850","DOI":"10.1080\/15374416.2020.1823850"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_29_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Mendez A. I. McQueen E. Gillespie S. Klin A. Klaiman C. Pickard K. (2024). Access to part C early intervention for children younger than 4 years evaluated for autism spectrum disorder. Autism 28(6) 1431\u20131440. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1177\/13623613241229150","DOI":"10.1177\/13623613241229150"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_30_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Monz B. U. Houghton R. Law K. Loss G. (2019). Treatment patterns in children with autism in the United States. Autism Research 12(3) 517\u2013526. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1002\/aur.2070","DOI":"10.1002\/aur.2070"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_31_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Morgan P. L. Farkas G. Hillemeier M. M. Maczuga S. (2012). Are minority children disproportionately represented in early intervention and early childhood special education? Educational Researcher 41(9) 339\u2013351. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3102\/0013189X12459678","DOI":"10.3102\/0013189X12459678"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_32_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Morgan P. L. Farkas G. Hillemeier M. M. Maczuga S. (2017). Replicated evidence of racial and ethnic disparities in disability identification in U.S. schools. Educational Researcher 46(6) 305\u2013322. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3102\/0013189X17726282","DOI":"10.3102\/0013189X17726282"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_33_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Morgan P. L. Farkas G. Hillemeier M. M. Mattison R. Maczuga S. Li H. Cook M. (2015). Minorities are disproportionately underrepresented in special education: Longitudinal evidence across five disability conditions. Educational Researcher 44(5) 278\u2013292. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3102\/0013189X15591157","DOI":"10.3102\/0013189X15591157"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_34_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Morgan P. L. Hu E. H. (2023). Sociodemographic disparities in ADHD diagnosis and treatment among U.S. elementary schoolchildren. Psychiatry Research 327 115393. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.psychres.2023.115393","DOI":"10.1016\/j.psychres.2023.115393"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_35_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Morgan P. L. Hu E. H. Woods A. D. Gloski C. A. Wang Y. (2023). Disparities in family-centered care among US children and youth with special healthcare needs. The Journal of Pediatrics 253 297\u2013303.e6. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.jpeds.2022.09.024","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jpeds.2022.09.024"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_36_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Nah Y. Tan J. W. (2021). The effect of diagnostic labels on teachers\u2019 perceptions of behaviours of students with autism spectrum disorder. British Journal of Educational Psychology 91(1) 315\u2013327. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1111\/bjep.12368","DOI":"10.1111\/bjep.12368"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_37_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Narendorf S. C. Shattuck P. T. Sterzing P. R. (2011). Mental health service use among adolescents with an autism spectrum disorder. Psychiatric Services 62(8) 975\u2013978. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1176\/ps.62.8.pss6208_0975","DOI":"10.1176\/ps.62.8.pss6208_0975"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_38_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"National Research Council. (2004). Measuring racial discrimination. Panel on methods for assessing discrimination. National Academies Press. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.17226\/10887","DOI":"10.17226\/10887"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_39_1","unstructured":"NCES Handbook of Survey Methods. (2017). National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP) (NCES Handbook of Survey Methods). National Center for Education Statistics Institute of Education Sciences U.S. Department of Education. https:\/\/nces.ed.gov\/statprog\/handbook\/naep.asp"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_40_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Nevison C. Parker W. (2020). California autism prevalence by county and race\/ethnicity: Declining trends among wealthy whites. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders 50(11) 4011\u20134021. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s10803-020-04460-0","DOI":"10.1007\/s10803-020-04460-0"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_41_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Nevison C. Zahorodny W. (2019). Race\/ethnicity-resolved time trends in united states ASD prevalence estimates from IDEA and ADDM. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders 49(12) 4721\u20134730. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s10803-019-04188-6","DOI":"10.1007\/s10803-019-04188-6"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_42_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"O\u2019Hagan K. G. Stiefel L. (2025). Does special education work? A systematic literature review of evidence from administrative data. Remedial and Special Education 46(2) 103\u2013117. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1177\/07419325241244485","DOI":"10.1177\/07419325241244485"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_43_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Oranje A. Kolstad A. (2019). Research on psychometric modeling analysis and reporting of the national assessment of educational progress. Journal of Educational and Behavioral Statistics 44(6) 648\u2013670. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3102\/1076998619867105","DOI":"10.3102\/1076998619867105"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_44_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"O\u2019Sharkey K. Mitra S. Paik S. Chow T. Cockburn M. Ritz B. (2025). Trends in the prevalence of autism spectrum disorder in California: Disparities by sociodemographic factors and region between 1990\u20132018. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders 55 2503\u20132511. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s10803-024-06371-w","DOI":"10.1007\/s10803-024-06371-w"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_45_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Portillo N. L. Thammathorn L. P. Buitrago L. M. Carter A. S. Sheldrick R. C. Eisenhower A. (2026). Disparities in receipt of early intervention services by toddlers with autism diagnoses: An intersectional latent class analysis of demographic factors. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders 56 1098\u20131114. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s10803-024-06613-x","DOI":"10.1007\/s10803-024-06613-x"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_46_1","unstructured":"Rehabilitation Act (1973). Section 504. https:\/\/www.dol.gov\/agencies\/oasam\/centers-offices\/civil-rights-center\/statutes\/section-504-rehabilitation-act-of-1973"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_47_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Rivera-Figueroa K. Marfo N. Y. A. Eigsti I.-M. (2022). Parental perceptions of autism spectrum disorder in Latinx and Black sociocultural contexts: A systematic review. American Journal on Intellectual and Developmental Disabilities 127(1) 42\u201363. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1352\/1944-7558-127.1.42","DOI":"10.1352\/1944-7558-127.1.42"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_48_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Roman-Urrestarazu A. Van Kessel R. Allison C. Matthews F. E. Brayne C. Baron-Cohen S. (2021). Association of race\/ethnicity and social disadvantage with autism prevalence in 7 million school children in England. JAMA Pediatrics 175(6) Article e210054. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1001\/jamapediatrics.2021.0054","DOI":"10.1001\/jamapediatrics.2021.0054"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_49_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Schott W. Tao S. Shea L. (2022). Co-occurring conditions and racial-ethnic disparities: Medicaid enrolled adults on the autism spectrum. Autism Research 15(1) 70\u201385. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1002\/aur.2644","DOI":"10.1002\/aur.2644"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_50_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Shaw K. A. Williams S. Patrick M. E. Valencia-Prado M. Durkin M. S. Howerton E. M. Ladd-Acosta C. M. Pas E. T. Bakian A. V. Bartholomew P. Nieves-Mu\u00f1oz N. Sidwell K. Alford A. Bilder D. A. DiRienzo M. Fitzgerald R. T. Furnier S. M. Hudson A. E. Pokoski O. M. . . .Maenner M. J. (2025). Prevalence and early identification of autism spectrum disorder among children aged 4 and 8 years\u2014Autism and developmental disabilities monitoring network 16 sites United States 2022. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report (MMWR) Surveillance Summaries 74(2) 1\u201322. http:\/\/dx.doi.org\/10.15585\/mmwr.ss7402a1","DOI":"10.15585\/mmwr.ss7402a1"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_51_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Shenouda J. Barrett E. Davidow A. L. Sidwell K. Halperin W. Silenzio V. M. B. Zahorodny W. (2022). Disparities in early intervention program participation by children with autism spectrum disorder in a US metropolitan area 2006 to 2016. JAMA Pediatrics 176(9) 906. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1001\/jamapediatrics.2022.2366","DOI":"10.1001\/jamapediatrics.2022.2366"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_52_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Slopen N. Chang A. R. Johnson T. J. Anderson A. T. Bate A. M. Clark S. Cohen A. Jindal M. Karbeah J. Pachter L. M. Priest N. Suglia S. F. Bryce N. Fawcett A. Heard-Garris N. (2024). Racial and ethnic inequities in the quality of paediatric care in the USA: A review of quantitative evidence. The Lancet Child & Adolescent Health 8(2) 147\u2013158. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/S2352-4642(23)00251-1","DOI":"10.1016\/S2352-4642(23)00251-1"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_53_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Smith K. A. Gehricke J.-G. Iadarola S. Wolfe A. Kuhlthau K. A. (2020). Disparities in service use among children with autism: A systematic review. Pediatrics 145(Suppl. 1) S35\u2013S46. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1542\/peds.2019-1895G","DOI":"10.1542\/peds.2019-1895G"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_54_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sturm A. Williams J. Kasari C. (2021). Who gains and who loses? Sociodemographic disparities in access to special education services among autistic students. Autism Research 14(8) 1621\u20131632. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1002\/aur.2517","DOI":"10.1002\/aur.2517"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_55_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Suhrheinrich J. Root B. V. Melgarejo M. Dickson K. Vejnoska S. Reith S. R. (2021). Exploring differences and disparities in school-based services received by students with autism: A systematic review. Research in Autism Spectrum Disorders 85 101791. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.rasd.2021.101791","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rasd.2021.101791"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_56_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Thomas K. C. Morrissey J. P. McLaurin C. (2007). Use of autism-related services by families and children. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders 37(5) 818\u2013829. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s10803-006-0208-9","DOI":"10.1007\/s10803-006-0208-9"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_57_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Travers J. Krezmien M. (2018). Racial disparities in autism identification in the United States During 2014. Exceptional Children 84(4) 403\u2013419. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1177\/0014402918771337","DOI":"10.1177\/0014402918771337"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_58_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Travers J. Krezmien M. P. Mulcahy C. Tincani M. (2014). Racial disparity in administrative autism identification across the United States during 2000 and 2007. The Journal of Special Education 48(3) 155\u2013166. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1177\/0022466912454014","DOI":"10.1177\/0022466912454014"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_59_1","unstructured":"U.S. Department of Education Office of Civil Rights. (2016). Dear colleague letter: Preventing racial discrimination in special education. https:\/\/www.ed.gov\/media\/document\/dear-colleague-letter-preventing-racial-discrimination-special-education-2016-rescinded-112264.pdf"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_60_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wei X. Wagner M. Christiano E. R. A. Shattuck P. Yu J. W. (2014). Special education services received by students with autism spectrum disorders from preschool through high school. The Journal of Special Education 48(3) 167\u2013179. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1177\/0022466913483576","DOI":"10.1177\/0022466913483576"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_61_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Weitlauf A. S. Miceli A. Vehorn A. Dada Y. Pinnock T. Harris J. W. Hine J. Warren Z. (2024). Screening diagnosis and intervention for autism: Experiences of Black and multiracial families seeking care. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders 54(3) 931\u2013942. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s10803-022-05861-z","DOI":"10.1007\/s10803-022-05861-z"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_62_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Woodman A. C. Demers L. Crossman M. K. Warfield M. E. Hauser-Cram P. (2018). Part C early intervention dosage and growth in adaptive skills from early childhood through adolescence. Early Childhood Research Quarterly 43 73\u201382. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.ecresq.2018.01.007","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ecresq.2018.01.007"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_63_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Woods A. D. Morgan P. L. Wang Y. Farkas G. Hillemeier M. M. (2023). Effects of having an IEP on the reading achievement of students with learning disabilities and speech or language impairments. Learning Disability Quarterly 48 73\u201387. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1177\/07319487231154235","DOI":"10.1177\/07319487231154235"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_64_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Yu Y. Schetter P. Melgarejo M. Suhrheinrich J. Holmes J. Gonsier-Gerdin J. Stahmer A. C. (2025). Examining a decade of changes in autism identification and inclusion by race and ethnicity in California education system. The Journal of Special Education 59 148\u2013158. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1177\/00224669251321461","DOI":"10.1177\/00224669251321461"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_65_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zuckerman K. E. Mattox K. M. Sinche B. K. Blaschke G. S. Bethell C. (2014). Racial ethnic and language disparities in early childhood developmental\/behavioral evaluations: A narrative review. Clinical Pediatrics 53(7) 619\u2013631. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1177\/0009922813501378","DOI":"10.1177\/0009922813501378"}],"container-title":["Autism"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/journals.sagepub.com\/doi\/pdf\/10.1177\/13623613261434432","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/journals.sagepub.com\/doi\/full-xml\/10.1177\/13623613261434432","content-type":"application\/xml","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/journals.sagepub.com\/doi\/pdf\/10.1177\/13623613261434432","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,21]],"date-time":"2026-05-21T10:46:42Z","timestamp":1779360402000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/journals.sagepub.com\/doi\/10.1177\/13623613261434432"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,20]]},"references-count":64,"journal-issue":{"issue":"6","published-print":{"date-parts":[[2026,6]]}},"alternative-id":["10.1177\/13623613261434432"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1177\/13623613261434432","relation":{},"ISSN":["1362-3613","1461-7005"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1362-3613","type":"print"},{"value":"1461-7005","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,20]]}}}