{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,1]],"date-time":"2026-09-01T09:20:42Z","timestamp":1788254442197,"version":"build-2803163510"},"reference-count":103,"publisher":"SAGE Publications","issue":"1","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,17]],"date-time":"2026-07-17T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1784246400000},"content-version":"tdm","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/journals.sagepub.com\/page\/policies\/text-and-data-mining-license"}],"funder":[{"name":"Ministry of Science and Innovation, the State Research Agency","award":["PID2023-149755OB-I00"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["PID2023-149755OB-I00"]}]},{"name":"European Regional Development Fund FEDER, EU.","award":["PID2023-149755OB-I00"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["PID2023-149755OB-I00"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":["journals.sagepub.com"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["Journal of Alzheimer\u2019s Disease"],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2026,9]]},"abstract":"<jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Background<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>The positive effect of bilingualism as a cognitive reserve factor in aging remains inconclusive, with inconsistencies often stemming from treating bilingualism as a dichotomous variable rather than a dynamic, multidimensional experience.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Objective<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>To investigate the impact of bilingualism on cognition in cognitively unimpaired older adults, focusing on age of language acquisition (AoA), proficiency, and usage throughout life.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Methods<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>Data from 2415 participants (aged 45\u201374) from the Alzheimer's and Families (ALFA) study were analyzed. Cognitive assessments included the Mini-Mental State Examination to assess global cognition, semantic verbal fluency for semantic lexical retrieval, Memory Binding Test for verbal episodic memory, and WAIS-IV subtests for processing speed (Coding), visual-spatial reasoning (Visual Puzzles), non-verbal abstract reasoning (Matrix Reasoning), verbal short-term memory and attention (Digit Span Forward) and working memory (Digit Span Backward and Sequencing). We defined three groups based on AoA (Early\/Late) and proficiency (High\/Low) of Catalan: 1) Early High-Proficiency bilinguals (n\u2009=\u20091559); 2) Late High-Proficiency bilinguals (n\u2009=\u2009537) and 3) Late Low-Proficiency bilinguals, primarily Spanish-dominant (n\u2009=\u2009319).<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Results<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>Early and Late High-Proficiency bilingual groups outperformed Late Low-Proficiency bilinguals in verbal semantic fluency and processing speed. Additionally, Early High-Proficiency bilinguals scored significantly higher in verbal short-term memory than both Late AoA groups.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Conclusions<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>The effects of bilingualism are domain-specific and primarily driven by high proficiency and active language use rather than AoA alone. These findings suggest that maintaining high L2 proficiency throughout the lifespan contributes to cognitive reserve, enhancing attentional control and processing speed in healthy aging.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>","DOI":"10.1177\/13872877261469525","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,17]],"date-time":"2026-07-17T12:11:47Z","timestamp":1784290307000},"page":"424-440","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1177\/sage-journals-update-policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Bilingualism and cognition: The impact of age of acquisition, language use, and proficiency in cognitively unimpaired older adults"],"prefix":"10.1177","volume":"113","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-3888-912X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Sergio","family":"Grueso","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Universitat Oberta de Catalunya"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-3454-800X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Gonzalo","family":"S\u00e1nchez-Benavides","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Barcelona\u03b2eta Brain Research Center (BBRC)"},{"name":"Hospital del Mar Research Institute, Barcelona, Spain"},{"name":"Centro de Investigaci\u00f3n Biom\u00e9dica en Red de Fragilidad y Envejecimiento Saludable (CIBERFES), Madrid, Spain"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-1567-617X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Miguel","family":"Santos-Santos","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Centro de Investigaci\u00f3n Biom\u00e9dica en Red de Fragilidad y Envejecimiento Saludable (CIBERFES), Madrid, Spain"},{"name":"Sant Pau Memory Unit, Department of Neurology, Hospital de la Santa Creu i Sant Pau, Barcelona, Spain"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8646-5463","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Laia","family":"Subirats","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Universitat Oberta de Catalunya"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Ferran","family":"Prados","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Universitat Oberta de Catalunya"},{"name":"UCL Hawkes Institute, University College London, London, UK"},{"name":"Queen Square Multiple Sclerosis Centre, Department of Neuroinflammation, UCL Queen Square Institute of Neurology, London, UK"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Oriol","family":"Grau-Rivera","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Barcelona\u03b2eta Brain Research Center (BBRC)"},{"name":"Hospital del Mar Research Institute, Barcelona, Spain"},{"name":"Centro de Investigaci\u00f3n Biom\u00e9dica en Red de Fragilidad y Envejecimiento Saludable (CIBERFES), Madrid, Spain"},{"name":"Servei de Neurologia, Hospital del Mar, Barcelona, Spain"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-4373-1316","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Marco","family":"Calabria","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Universitat Oberta de Catalunya"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"179","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,17]]},"reference":[{"key":"e_1_3_3_2_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3390\/bs9030033"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_3_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/s44159-023-00178-9"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_4_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3390\/bs9030027"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_5_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3389\/fpsyg.2020.01458"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_6_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3389\/fnhum.2022.819105"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_7_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1017\/S1366728923000317"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_8_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1075\/lab.16002.bak"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_9_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1177\/1179069519876597"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_10_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1080\/20445911.2013.795574"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_11_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(20)30367-6"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_12_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(24)01296-0"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_13_2","unstructured":"World Health Organization. Ageing and health https:\/\/www.who.int\/news-room\/fact-sheets\/detail\/ageing-and-health (2024 accessed December 2025)."},{"key":"e_1_3_3_14_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuropsychologia.2006.10.009"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_15_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1212\/WNL.0b013e3181fc2a1c"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_16_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1212\/01.wnl.0000436620.33155.a4"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_17_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1017\/S136672891400087X"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_18_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1159\/000488485"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_19_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1159\/000505872"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_20_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3758\/s13423-020-01736-5"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_21_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s11065-020-09426-8"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_22_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s41999-020-00326-x"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_23_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1097\/WAD.0000000000000373"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_24_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1037\/neu0000023"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_25_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuropsychologia.2020.107528"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_26_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1037\/neu0000129"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_27_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ssmph.2016.06.002"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_28_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.2147\/CIA.S145397"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_29_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3233\/JAD-170131"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_30_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jalz.2018.07.219"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_31_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1093\/acrefore\/9780190236557.013.338"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_32_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tics.2012.03.001"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_33_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3389\/fpsyg.2014.01401"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_34_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1177\/13670069211051291"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_35_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.1811513116"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_36_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jneuroling.2020.100930"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_37_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1017\/S1366728920000358"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_38_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cogdev.2013.01.011"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_39_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1523\/JNEUROSCI.4563-11.2011"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_40_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1017\/S1366728921000705"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_41_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1080\/20445911.2012.669367"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_42_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3389\/fpsyg.2022.780261"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_43_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3389\/fpsyg.2019.02825"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_44_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3389\/fpsyg.2013.00322"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_45_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1037\/bul0000142"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_46_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1017\/S1366728917000694"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_47_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jneuroling.2007.07.001"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_48_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1080\/20445911.2013.796377"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_49_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1017\/S1366728915000309"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_50_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1093\/geronb\/gbaa058"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_51_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1017\/S1355617711000580"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_52_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1017\/S1366728914000352"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_53_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jml.2015.07.001"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_54_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.trci.2016.02.003"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_55_2","unstructured":"Idescat. Enquesta d\u2019usos ling\u00fc\u00edstics de la poblaci\u00f3. Catalunya https:\/\/www.idescat.cat\/pub\/?id=eulp (accessed September 2025)."},{"key":"e_1_3_3_56_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1017\/S1366728911000010"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_57_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/S0028-3932(01)00055-0"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_58_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/0022-3956(75)90026-6"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_59_2","first-page":"402","article-title":"Spanish version of the Memory Impairment Screen (MIS): normative data and discriminant validity","volume":"20","author":"B\u00f6hm P","year":"2005","unstructured":"B\u00f6hm P, Pe\u00f1a-Casanova J, Gramunt N, et al. Spanish version of the Memory Impairment Screen (MIS): normative data and discriminant validity. Neurologia 2005; 20: 402\u2013411.","journal-title":"Neurologia"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_60_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1212\/WNL.52.2.231"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_61_2","first-page":"99","article-title":"Shortened version of the Barcelona test (I): subtests and normal profiles","volume":"12","author":"Pe\u00f1a-Casanova J","year":"1997","unstructured":"Pe\u00f1a-Casanova J, Guardia J, Bertran-Serra I, et al. Shortened version of the Barcelona test (I): subtests and normal profiles. Neurol Barc Spain 1997; 12: 99\u2013111.","journal-title":"Neurol Barc Spain"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_62_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1093\/arclin\/acp042"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_63_2","first-page":"17","article-title":"Respective r\u00f4les of frontal lesions and lesion lateralization in \u2018verbal fluency\u2019 deficiencies","volume":"123","author":"Ramier AM","year":"1970","unstructured":"Ramier AM, H\u00e9caen H. Respective r\u00f4les of frontal lesions and lesion lateralization in \u2018verbal fluency\u2019 deficiencies. Rev Neurol (Paris) 1970; 123: 17\u201322.","journal-title":"Rev Neurol (Paris)"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_64_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1212\/WNL.43.11.2412-a"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_65_2","first-page":"55","volume-title":"Dementia and memory","author":"Buschke H","year":"2013","unstructured":"Buschke H. Rationale of the memory binding test. In: Nilsson LG, Ohta N (eds) Dementia and memory. Psychology Press, 2013, pp.55\u201371."},{"key":"e_1_3_3_66_2","volume-title":"WAIS-IV, Escala de inteligencia de Wechsler para adultos-IV","author":"Wechsler D","year":"2012","unstructured":"Wechsler D. WAIS-IV, Escala de inteligencia de Wechsler para adultos-IV. Pearson, 2012."},{"key":"e_1_3_3_67_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1075\/lab.18022.cal"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_68_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.33588\/rn.5204.2010478"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_69_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3389\/fpsyg.2011.00123"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_70_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1017\/S1366728918001086"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_71_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3758\/s13423-019-01567-z"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_72_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1093\/geronb\/gbaf064"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_73_2","volume-title":"An R Companion to Applied Regression","author":"Fox J","year":"2019","unstructured":"Fox J, Weisberg S. An R Companion to Applied Regression. Sage Publications, 2019."},{"key":"e_1_3_3_74_2","unstructured":"R Core Team. R: A language and environment for statistical computing https:\/\/www.R-project.org\/ (2023)."},{"key":"e_1_3_3_75_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3102\/0034654310368803"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_76_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/nyas.13333"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_77_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1080\/13670050.2021.1908220"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_78_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3758\/s13423-022-02057-5"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_79_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3758\/s13423-011-0116-7"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_80_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1037\/cjep2007014"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_81_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1080\/13670050.2010.488287"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_82_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1037\/a0037254"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_83_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/1460-6984.12855"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_84_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1186\/s13195-020-0581-1"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_85_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cognition.2009.08.014"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_86_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1080\/20445911.2016.1248436"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_87_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1017\/S1366728918001098"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_88_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1080\/00207599108247135"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_89_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/j.2044-8295.1996.tb02585.x"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_90_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1080\/13670050.2019.1667949"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_91_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1017\/S1366728920000486"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_92_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3389\/fpsyg.2015.00164"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_93_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1075\/lab.18032.del"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_94_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neubiorev.2021.02.029"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_95_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jneuroling.2020.100890"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_96_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tics.2021.02.003"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_97_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.1610909114"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_98_2","article-title":"A theoretically driven and empirically grounded calculation for language dominance and degree of multilingualism","author":"Chen XJ","unstructured":"Chen XJ, Blanco-Elorrieta E. A theoretically driven and empirically grounded calculation for language dominance and degree of multilingualism. Biling Lang Cogn. Epub ahead of print 2025. DOI: https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1017\/S1366728925100849","journal-title":"Biling Lang Cogn."},{"key":"e_1_3_3_99_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1017\/S1366728911000332"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_100_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3758\/s13428-017-0867-9"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_101_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1017\/S1366728919000038"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_102_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1044\/1092-4388(2007\/067)"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_103_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cognition.2013.11.015"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_104_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1075\/lab.15002.bak"}],"container-title":["Journal of Alzheimer\u2019s Disease"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/journals.sagepub.com\/doi\/pdf\/10.1177\/13872877261469525","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/journals.sagepub.com\/doi\/full-xml\/10.1177\/13872877261469525","content-type":"application\/xml","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/journals.sagepub.com\/doi\/pdf\/10.1177\/13872877261469525","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,1]],"date-time":"2026-09-01T09:07:49Z","timestamp":1788253669000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/journals.sagepub.com\/doi\/10.1177\/13872877261469525"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,17]]},"references-count":103,"journal-issue":{"issue":"1","published-print":{"date-parts":[[2026,9]]}},"alternative-id":["10.1177\/13872877261469525"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1177\/13872877261469525","relation":{},"ISSN":["1387-2877","1875-8908"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1387-2877","type":"print"},{"value":"1875-8908","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,17]]}}}