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Both measures were dichotomized into high and low BR according to their median. Education was classified as high (any formal schooling) and low (no formal schooling). We administered a neuropsychological test battery to assess memory, verbal fluency, executive function, and attention. Mild cognitive impairment (MCI) was diagnosed following Petersen's criteria. Regression analyses were performed.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Results<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>Higher late-life BR was associated with better performance across all cognitive domains (p\u2009&lt;\u20090.01) and reduced likelihoods of MCI and amnestic MCI (p\u2009&lt;\u20090.001). Joint-exposure analyses suggested that compared to participants with low BR and low education, individuals with both high late-life BR and high education showed best cognitive performance and lowest likelihoods of MCI, followed by those with low BR and high education. Moreover, higher late-life BR was linked to better executive function, attention, and global cognition only in participants with high education (p for interaction&lt;0.05).<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Conclusions<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>Late-life BR has a stronger association with cognitive health than early-life BR, even among older adults without formal schooling. Furthermore, formal education may enhance the association between late-life BR and cognitive function.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>","DOI":"10.1177\/13872877261469556","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,20]],"date-time":"2026-07-20T13:43:34Z","timestamp":1784555014000},"page":"450-463","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1177\/sage-journals-update-policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Early- and late-life brain reserve proxies and their interactions with education on cognitive outcomes in older adults: A population-based MRI study"],"prefix":"10.1177","volume":"113","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-1154-3409","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Xiaojuan","family":"Han","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Shandong Provincial Hospital Affiliated to Shandong First Medical University"},{"name":"Shandong Provincial Hospital"},{"name":"Shandong University"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Yuanjing","family":"Li","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Karolinska Institute-Stockholm"},{"name":"The Swedish School of Sport and Health Science"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Jiafeng","family":"Wang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Shandong Provincial Hospital Affiliated to Shandong First Medical University"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Xinyu","family":"Liu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Shandong Provincial Hospital"},{"name":"Shandong University"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Enming","family":"Cao","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Shandong Provincial Hospital Affiliated to Shandong First Medical University"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Yiming","family":"Song","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Shandong Provincial Hospital"},{"name":"Shandong University"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-7100-1065","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Lin","family":"Song","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Shandong Provincial Hospital Affiliated to Shandong First Medical University"},{"name":"Shandong Provincial Hospital"},{"name":"Shandong University"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Lin","family":"Cong","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Shandong Provincial Hospital Affiliated to Shandong First Medical University"},{"name":"Shandong Provincial Hospital"},{"name":"Shandong University"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Qinghua","family":"Zhang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Shandong Provincial Hospital Affiliated to Shandong First Medical University"},{"name":"Shandong Provincial Hospital"},{"name":"Shandong University"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Shi","family":"Tang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Shandong Provincial Hospital Affiliated to Shandong First Medical University"},{"name":"Shandong Provincial Hospital"},{"name":"Shandong University"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Yongxiang","family":"Wang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Shandong Provincial Hospital Affiliated to Shandong First Medical University"},{"name":"Shandong Provincial Hospital"},{"name":"Shandong University"},{"name":"Karolinska Institute-Stockholm"},{"name":"Institute of Brain Science and Brain-Inspired Research, Shandong First Medical University &amp; 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