{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,4]],"date-time":"2026-05-04T23:19:06Z","timestamp":1777936746418,"version":"3.51.4"},"reference-count":47,"publisher":"SAGE Publications","issue":"1","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2014,6,12]],"date-time":"2014-06-12T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1402531200000},"content-version":"tdm","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/journals.sagepub.com\/page\/policies\/text-and-data-mining-license"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["journals.sagepub.com"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["New Media &amp; Society"],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2016,1]]},"abstract":"<jats:p>For the first 25 years, three-dimensional printing was the domain of industrial manufacturing and engineering. Through the open-source movement and peer production, this disruptive technology has become more widely available. This article considers how the future development and use of three-dimensional printing may be facilitated or inhibited through intellectual property law and practice. Using a combination of technical, legal, and policy analysis, we conclude that the potential for patent infringement is a primary issue in the continued development of three-dimensional printing technology. When it comes to the printed objects themselves, copyright issues will be the main focus of this debate. As these issues become more pervasive, some copyright holders will find technology-based solutions to enforce copyright laws and restrict printing activities. A common recourse is digital rights management as a means for protecting intellectual property, but its use has the potential for imposing unnecessarily stringent limitations on the use of three-dimensional printing.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1177\/1461444814538647","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2014,6,13]],"date-time":"2014-06-13T03:20:40Z","timestamp":1402629640000},"page":"138-155","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1177\/sage-journals-update-policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":7,"title":["The future of three-dimensional printing: Intellectual property or intellectual confinement?"],"prefix":"10.1177","volume":"18","author":[{"given":"Stephanie M","family":"Santoso","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Cornell University, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Stephen B","family":"Wicker","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Cornell University, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"179","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2014,6,12]]},"reference":[{"key":"bibr1-1461444814538647","unstructured":"3D Systems Inc. v Formlabs Inc. et al\n                      . (2012). Available at: http:\/\/www.law360.com\/cases\/50abdf2de607d31e1f000001"},{"key":"bibr2-1461444814538647","first-page":"33","volume":"66","author":"Boyle J","year":"2003","journal-title":"Law and Contemporary Problems"},{"issue":"3","key":"bibr3-1461444814538647","first-page":"771","volume":"23","author":"Brean DH","year":"2013","journal-title":"Fordham Intellectual Property, Media and Entertainment Law Journal"},{"key":"bibr4-1461444814538647","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1548-1360.2009.01036.x"},{"key":"bibr5-1461444814538647","unstructured":"Compilations and Derivative Works (1976) 17 US Code \u00a7 103. Available at: http:\/\/www.law.cornell.edu\/uscode\/text\/17\/103"},{"key":"bibr6-1461444814538647","unstructured":"Creative Commons (2013) About the licenses. Available at: http:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/"},{"key":"bibr7-1461444814538647","unstructured":"Crump S (1992) Apparatus and method for creating three-dimensional objects. Patent 5121329, USA."},{"key":"bibr8-1461444814538647","unstructured":"Digital Millennium Copyright Act 1998. Available at: http:\/\/www.copyright.gov\/legislation\/hr2281.pdf"},{"key":"bibr9-1461444814538647","unstructured":"Digital Watermarking Alliance (2010) The case for content identification. Available at: http:\/\/www.digitalwatermarkingalliance.org\/docs\/papers\/DWA_WhitePaper_Case4ContentID.pdf"},{"key":"bibr10-1461444814538647","unstructured":"Doctorow C (2013) Get ready for the big bang as 3D printing patents expire. In: Boing Boing. Available at: http:\/\/boingboing.net\/2013\/07\/22\/get-ready-for-the-big-bang-as.html (accessed 23 April 2014)."},{"key":"bibr11-1461444814538647","unstructured":"Doherty D (2012) Downloading infringement: patent law as a roadblock to the 3D printing revolution. Harvard Journal of Law and Technology 26(1): 353\u2013373."},{"key":"bibr12-1461444814538647","unstructured":"The Economist (2012) Solid print. In: The Economist. Available at: http:\/\/www.economist.com\/node\/21552892 (accessed 17 October 2013)."},{"key":"bibr13-1461444814538647","unstructured":"EFF (2013) EFF\u2019s fight for open 3D printing continues at ask patents. In: Deeplinks. Available at: https:\/\/www.eff.org\/deeplinks\/2013\/03\/effs-fight-open-3d-printing-continues-askpatentscom (accessed 13 May 2013)."},{"key":"bibr14-1461444814538647","unstructured":"Giseburt R (2012) 3D Systems suing Formlabs and Kickstarter for patent infringement. In: MAKE. Available at: http:\/\/blog.makezine.com\/2012\/11\/21\/3d-systems-suing-formlabs-and-kickstarter-for-patent-infringement\/ (accessed 30 November 2012)."},{"key":"bibr15-1461444814538647","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.7551\/mitpress\/6980.001.0001"},{"key":"bibr16-1461444814538647","volume-title":"Apparatus for production of three-dimensional objects by stereolithography","author":"Hull C","year":"1986"},{"key":"bibr17-1461444814538647","unstructured":"Infringement of Patent (1952) 35 US Code \u00a7 271. Available at: http:\/\/www.law.cornell.edu\/uscode\/text\/35\/271"},{"key":"bibr18-1461444814538647","unstructured":"Jenkins H (2009) Confronting the challenges of participatory culture: media education for the 21st century. Available at: http:\/\/mitpress.mit.edu\/sites\/default\/files\/titles\/free_download\/9780262513623_Confronting_the_Challenges.pdf (accessed 5 June 2013)."},{"key":"bibr19-1461444814538647","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1525\/can.2005.20.2.185"},{"key":"bibr20-1461444814538647","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1145\/1868914.1868950"},{"key":"bibr21-1461444814538647","unstructured":"Leadbeater C (2005) The era of open innovation. Available at: http:\/\/www.ted.com\/talks\/charles_leadbeater_on_innovation (accessed 6 February 2014)."},{"key":"bibr22-1461444814538647","unstructured":"Leahy-Smith America Invents Act 2011. Available at: http:\/\/www.gpo.gov\/fdsys\/pkg\/BILLS-112hr1249enr\/pdf\/BILLS-112hr1249enr.pdf"},{"key":"bibr23-1461444814538647","volume-title":"Free Culture","author":"Lessig L","year":"2004"},{"key":"bibr24-1461444814538647","unstructured":"MakerBot (2012) Let\u2019s try that again. Available at: http:\/\/www.MakerBot.com\/blog\/2012\/09\/24\/lets-try-that-again\/"},{"key":"bibr25-1461444814538647","unstructured":"Mazer v Stein\n                      (1954) 347 US 201. Available at: http:\/\/www.law.cornell.edu\/copyright\/cases\/347_US_201.htm"},{"key":"bibr26-1461444814538647","unstructured":"Proffitt B (2012) How open source hardware is driving the 3D-printing industry. In: ReadWrite. Available at: http:\/\/readwrite.com\/2012\/07\/03\/how-open-source-hardware-is-driving-the-3d-printing-industry (accessed 17 January 2013)."},{"key":"bibr27-1461444814538647","unstructured":"RepRap (2014) RepRapGPLLicence. Available at: http:\/\/reprap.org\/wiki\/RepRapGPLLicence"},{"key":"bibr28-1461444814538647","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1177\/1469540509354673"},{"key":"bibr29-1461444814538647","unstructured":"Schneier B (2005) Sony\u2019s DRM rootkit: the real story. In: Schneier on Security. Available at: http:\/\/www.schneier.com\/blog\/archives\/2005\/11\/sonys_drm_rootk.html (accessed 17 January 2013)."},{"key":"bibr30-1461444814538647","unstructured":"Shapeways (2013) Terms and conditions. Available at: http:\/\/www.shapeways.com\/terms_and_conditions"},{"key":"bibr31-1461444814538647","unstructured":"Shirky C (2005) Institutions vs. collaboration. Available at: http:\/\/www.ted.com\/talks\/clay_shirky_on_institutions_versus_collaboration (accessed 6 February 2014)."},{"key":"bibr32-1461444814538647","unstructured":"Sony Corp of America v Universal City Studios Inc\n                      . (1984) 464 US 417. Available at: http:\/\/www.law.cornell.edu\/copyright\/cases\/464_US_417.htm"},{"key":"bibr33-1461444814538647","unstructured":"Subject Matter of Copyright (1976) 17 US Code \u00a7 102. Available at: http:\/\/www.law.cornell.edu\/uscode\/text\/17\/102"},{"key":"bibr34-1461444814538647","unstructured":"Suehle R (2011) The DRM graveyard. In: Opensource. Available at: http:\/\/opensource.com\/life\/11\/11\/drm-graveyard-brief-history-digital-rights-management-music (accessed 7 June 2013)"},{"key":"bibr35-1461444814538647","unstructured":"Thingiverse (2013) Lets look at your things. Available at: http:\/\/www.thingiverse.com\/apps\/lets-look-at-your-things"},{"key":"bibr36-1461444814538647","unstructured":"Thingiverse (2014) About. Available at: http:\/\/www.thingiverse.com\/about"},{"key":"bibr37-1461444814538647","unstructured":"Thompson C (2012) Clive Thompson on 3-D printing\u2019s legal morass. Wired, 30 May. Available at: http:\/\/www.wired.com\/2012\/05\/3-d-printing-patent-law\/"},{"key":"bibr38-1461444814538647","unstructured":"US Copyright Office (2012a) Copyright basics. Available at: http:\/\/www.copyright.gov\/circs\/circ01.pdf"},{"key":"bibr39-1461444814538647","unstructured":"US Copyright Office (2012b) Copyright claims in architectural works. Available at: http:\/\/www.copyright.gov\/circs\/circ41.pdf"},{"key":"bibr40-1461444814538647","unstructured":"US Copyright Office (2012c) Fair use. Available at: http:\/\/www.copyright.gov\/fls\/fl102.html"},{"key":"bibr41-1461444814538647","unstructured":"US Copyright Office (2012d) How long does copyright protection last? Available at: http:\/\/www.copyright.gov\/help\/faq\/faq-duration.html"},{"key":"bibr42-1461444814538647","unstructured":"US Patent and Trademark Office (USPTO) (2012) Types of patents. Available at: http:\/\/www.uspto.gov\/web\/offices\/ac\/ido\/oeip\/taf\/patdesc.htm"},{"key":"bibr43-1461444814538647","unstructured":"USPTO Patent Database (2013) Searches for 3D Systems, Stratasys and MakerBot. Available at: http:\/\/patft.uspto.gov\/ (accessed 22 October 2013)."},{"key":"bibr44-1461444814538647","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Weinberg M (2012) Michael Weinberg on 3D printing. Surprisingly Free, 17 January. Available at: http:\/\/surprisinglyfree.com\/2012\/01\/17\/michael-weinberg\/ (accessed 15 March 2013).","DOI":"10.5402\/2012\/680247"},{"key":"bibr45-1461444814538647","unstructured":"Williams & Wilkins Co v The United States\n                      (1976)\n                      487 F2d 1345\n                      ."},{"key":"bibr46-1461444814538647","unstructured":"World Intellectual Property Organization (2014) What is IP? Available at: http:\/\/www.wipo.int\/about-ip\/en\/"},{"key":"bibr47-1461444814538647","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1177\/1469540508090089"}],"container-title":["New Media &amp; Society"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/journals.sagepub.com\/doi\/pdf\/10.1177\/1461444814538647","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/journals.sagepub.com\/doi\/full-xml\/10.1177\/1461444814538647","content-type":"application\/xml","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/journals.sagepub.com\/doi\/pdf\/10.1177\/1461444814538647","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,2]],"date-time":"2026-05-02T03:42:13Z","timestamp":1777693333000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/journals.sagepub.com\/doi\/10.1177\/1461444814538647"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2014,6,12]]},"references-count":47,"journal-issue":{"issue":"1","published-print":{"date-parts":[[2016,1]]}},"alternative-id":["10.1177\/1461444814538647"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1177\/1461444814538647","relation":{},"ISSN":["1461-4448","1461-7315"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1461-4448","type":"print"},{"value":"1461-7315","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2014,6,12]]}}}