{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,13]],"date-time":"2026-04-13T19:45:15Z","timestamp":1776109515882,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":78,"publisher":"SAGE Publications","issue":"7","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2022,7,18]],"date-time":"2022-07-18T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1658102400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"http:\/\/www.sagepub.com\/licence-information-for-chorus"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/100000001","name":"National Science Foundation","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["1942125"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["1942125"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100000001","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":["journals.sagepub.com"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["New Media &amp; Society"],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2024,7]]},"abstract":"<jats:p> Research suggests that marginalized social media users face disproportionate content moderation and removal. However, when content is removed or accounts suspended, the processes governing content moderation are largely invisible, making assessing content moderation bias difficult. To study this bias, we conducted a digital ethnography of marginalized users on Reddit\u2019s \/r\/FTM subreddit and Twitch\u2019s \u201cJust Chatting\u201d and \u201cPools, Hot Tubs, and Beaches\u201d categories, observing content moderation visibility in real time. We found that on Reddit, a text-based platform, platform tools make content moderation practices invisible to users, but moderators make their practices visible through communication with users. Yet on Twitch, a live chat and streaming platform, content moderation practices are visible in channel live chats, \u201cunban appeal\u201d streams, and \u201cback from my ban\u201d streams. Our ethnography shows how content moderation visibility differs in important ways between social media platforms, harming those who must see offensive content, and at other times, allowing for increased platform accountability. <\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1177\/14614448221109804","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2022,7,18]],"date-time":"2022-07-18T11:21:45Z","timestamp":1658143305000},"page":"4034-4055","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1177\/sage-journals-update-policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":64,"title":["(In)visible moderation: A digital ethnography of marginalized users and content moderation on Twitch and Reddit"],"prefix":"10.1177","volume":"26","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-0520-0218","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Hibby","family":"Thach","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"University of Illinois Chicago, USA"}]},{"given":"Samuel","family":"Mayworm","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[]},{"given":"Daniel","family":"Delmonaco","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-6552-4540","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Oliver","family":"Haimson","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"University of Michigan, USA"}]}],"member":"179","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,7,18]]},"reference":[{"key":"bibr1-14614448221109804","unstructured":"Alford E (2021) How transgender Redditors are being driven from the site. Jezebel, 7 September. Available at: https:\/\/jezebel.com\/transgender-redditors-are-being-driven-from-the-site-by-1847256024"},{"key":"bibr2-14614448221109804","unstructured":"Angwin J, ProPublica, Grassegger H (2017) Facebook\u2019s secret censorship rules protect white men from hate speech but not black children. Propublica, 28 June. Available at: https:\/\/www.propublica.org\/article\/facebook-hate-speech-censorship-internal-documents-algorithms"},{"key":"bibr3-14614448221109804","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1080\/14680777.2020.1783805"},{"key":"bibr4-14614448221109804","unstructured":"Asarch S (2021) Hot tub livestreamers broadcasting in bikinis on Twitch have divided the platform\u2019s community. Insider. Available at: https:\/\/www.insider.com\/twitch-hot-tub-meta-controversy-explained-2021-5"},{"key":"bibr5-14614448221109804","unstructured":"Biddle S, Ribeiro PV, Dias T (2020) Invisible censorship: TikTok told moderators to suppress posts by \u201cugly\u201d people and the poor to attract new users. The Intercept, 16 March. Available at: https:\/\/theintercept.com\/2020\/03\/16\/tiktok-app-moderators-users-discrimination\/"},{"key":"bibr6-14614448221109804","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-319-67256-4_32"},{"key":"bibr7-14614448221109804","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.14197\/atr.201220148"},{"key":"bibr8-14614448221109804","unstructured":"Botella E (2019) TikTok admits it suppressed videos by disabled, queer, and fat creators. Slate, 4 December. Available at: https:\/\/slate.com\/technology\/2019\/12\/tiktok-disabled-users-videos-suppressed.html"},{"key":"bibr9-14614448221109804","unstructured":"Bradford B, Grisel F, Meares TL, et al. (2019) Report of the Facebook data transparency advisory group. The Justice Collaboratory, Yale Law School, New Haven, CT, April."},{"key":"bibr10-14614448221109804","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1191\/1478088706qp063oa"},{"key":"bibr11-14614448221109804","first-page":"77","volume":"81","author":"Buolamwini J","year":"2018","journal-title":"Proceeding of Machine Learning Research"},{"key":"bibr12-14614448221109804","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1177\/1525822X08329699"},{"key":"bibr13-14614448221109804","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.4018\/IJICST.2019070103"},{"key":"bibr14-14614448221109804","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1145\/3452918.3458796"},{"key":"bibr15-14614448221109804","volume-title":"Content or Context Moderation? Artisanal, Community-Reliant, and Industrial Approaches","author":"Caplan R","year":"2018"},{"key":"bibr16-14614448221109804","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1145\/3134666"},{"key":"bibr17-14614448221109804","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1177\/1461444814543163"},{"key":"bibr18-14614448221109804","unstructured":"D\u2019Anastasio C (2021) Twitch sues users over alleged \u201chate raids\u201d against streamers. Wired, 10 September. Available at: https:\/\/www.wired.com\/story\/twitch-sues-users-over-alleged-hate-raids\/"},{"key":"bibr19-14614448221109804","unstructured":"Diaz A (2021) Twitch bans Amouranth and Indiefoxx after yoga ASMR streams. Polygon, 21 June. Available at: https:\/\/www.polygon.com\/22543478\/twitch-amouranth-indiefoxx-yoga-asmr-stream-hot-tub-meta-ban"},{"key":"bibr20-14614448221109804","volume-title":"EFF Project Shows How People are unfairly \u201cTossed Out\u201d by Platforms\u2019 Absurd Enforcement of Content Rules","author":"Electronic Frontier Foundation","year":"2019"},{"key":"bibr21-14614448221109804","author":"Ferrari P","year":"2021","journal-title":"Madmoizelle"},{"key":"bibr22-14614448221109804","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1145\/3392845"},{"key":"bibr23-14614448221109804","volume-title":"Internet Research: Ethical Guidelines 3.0","author":"franzke as","year":"2020"},{"key":"bibr24-14614448221109804","unstructured":"Gadde V, Beykpour K (2018) Setting the record straight on shadow banning. Twitter Blog, 26 July. Available at: https:\/\/blog.twitter.com\/en_us\/topics\/company\/2018\/Setting-the-record-straight-on-shadow-banning"},{"key":"bibr25-14614448221109804","unstructured":"Gebel M (2020) Black creators say TikTok still secretly hides their content. Digital Trends, 21 July. Available at: https:\/\/www.digitaltrends.com\/social-media\/black-creators-claim-tiktok-still-secretly-blocking-content\/"},{"key":"bibr26-14614448221109804","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1177\/1461444820912540"},{"key":"bibr27-14614448221109804","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1145\/3392822"},{"key":"bibr28-14614448221109804","first-page":"254","volume-title":"SAGE Handbook of Social Media","author":"Gillespie T","year":"2017"},{"key":"bibr29-14614448221109804","volume-title":"Custodians of the Internet: Platforms, Content Moderation, and the Hidden Decisions That Shape Social Media","author":"Gillespie T","year":"2018"},{"key":"bibr30-14614448221109804","volume-title":"Woke Gaming: Digital Challenges to Oppression and Social Injustice","author":"Gray KL","year":"2018"},{"key":"bibr31-14614448221109804","unstructured":"Grayson N (2021a) Hot tub streams are waning, but some people still think they\u2019re destroying Twitch. Kotaku, 23 April. Available at: https:\/\/kotaku.com\/hot-tub-streams-are-waning-but-some-people-still-think-1846749371"},{"key":"bibr32-14614448221109804","unstructured":"Grayson N (2021b) Marginalized streamers beg Twitch to \u201cdo better\u201d in wake of hate raids, poor pay. The Washington Post, 11 August. Available at: https:\/\/www.washingtonpost.com\/video-games\/2021\/08\/25\/twitch-hate-raids-streamers-discord-cybersecurity\/"},{"key":"bibr33-14614448221109804","unstructured":"Grayson N (2021c) Twitch\u2019s \u201cHot Tub Meta\u201d has sparked off yet another debate about women\u2019s attire. Kotaku, 2 April. Available at: https:\/\/kotaku.com\/twitchs-hot-tub-meta-has-sparked-off-yet-another-debate-1846600932"},{"key":"bibr34-14614448221109804","unstructured":"Guynn J (2019) Facebook while black: users call it getting \u201cZucked,\u201d say talking about racism is censored as hate speech. USA Today, 24 April. Available at: https:\/\/www.usatoday.com\/story\/news\/2019\/04\/24\/facebook-while-black-zucked-users-say-they-get-blocked-racism-discussion\/2859593002\/"},{"key":"bibr35-14614448221109804","unstructured":"Habib H, Musa MB, Zaffar F, et al. (2019) To act or react: investigating proactive strategies for online community moderation. arXiv. Available at: https:\/\/arxiv.org\/abs\/1906.11932"},{"key":"bibr36-14614448221109804","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1080\/14680777.2019.1678505"},{"key":"bibr37-14614448221109804","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1145\/3479610"},{"key":"bibr38-14614448221109804","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1145\/2556288.2557048"},{"key":"bibr39-14614448221109804","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.4135\/9780857020277"},{"key":"bibr40-14614448221109804","unstructured":"Jan T, Dwoskin E (2017) A white man called her kids the n-word. Facebook stopped her from sharing it. The Washington Post, 31 July. Available at: https:\/\/www.washingtonpost.com\/business\/economy\/for-facebook-erasing-hate-speech-proves-a-daunting-challenge\/2017\/07\/31\/922d9bc6-6e3b-11e7-9c15-177740635e83_story.html"},{"key":"bibr41-14614448221109804","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1145\/3359294"},{"key":"bibr42-14614448221109804","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1145\/3359252"},{"key":"bibr43-14614448221109804","unstructured":"K\u00f6ver C (2019) Discrimination: TikTok curbed reach for people with disabilities. Netzpolitik, 2 December. Available at: https:\/\/netzpolitik.org\/2019\/discrimination-tiktok-curbed-reach-for-people-with-disabilities\/"},{"key":"bibr44-14614448221109804","unstructured":"Lux D, Lil Miss Hot Mess (2017) Facebook\u2019s hate speech policies censor marginalized users. Wired, 14 August. Available at: https:\/\/www.wired.com\/story\/facebooks-hate-speech-policies-censor-marginalized-users\/"},{"key":"bibr45-14614448221109804","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1080\/1369118X.2011.641993"},{"key":"bibr46-14614448221109804","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3726\/978-1-4539-1501-1"},{"key":"bibr47-14614448221109804","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1177\/1461444815608807"},{"key":"bibr48-14614448221109804","volume-title":"The Grey Area: Instagram, Shadowbanning, and the Erasure of Marginalized Communities","author":"Middlebrook C","year":"2020"},{"key":"bibr49-14614448221109804","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1177\/0038038508094565"},{"key":"bibr50-14614448221109804","first-page":"158","volume-title":"Handbook of Emergent Technologies in Social Research","author":"Murthy D","year":"2011"},{"key":"bibr51-14614448221109804","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3898\/NEWF.86.06.2015"},{"key":"bibr52-14614448221109804","unstructured":"Nightingale E (2021) Hot tub Twitch streamer banned after transphobic pile-on slams platform for failing creators. PinkNews, 13 July. Available at: https:\/\/www.pinknews.co.uk\/2021\/07\/13\/twitch-trans-streamer-anne-atomic-2\/"},{"key":"bibr53-14614448221109804","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s12119-020-09790-w"},{"key":"bibr54-14614448221109804","unstructured":"Reddit (2021a) R\/changelog safety update on Reddit\u2019s follow feature. Reddit, 14 July. Available at: https:\/\/www.reddit.com\/r\/changelog\/comments\/ok8xzb\/safety_update_on_reddits_follow_feature\/ (accessed 22 April 2022)."},{"key":"bibr55-14614448221109804","unstructured":"Reddit (2021b) R\/changelog you can now opt-out of being followed. Reddit, 25 August. Available at: https:\/\/www.reddit.com\/r\/changelog\/comments\/pbjshi\/you_can_now_optout_of_being_followed\/ (accessed 22 April 2022)."},{"key":"bibr56-14614448221109804","unstructured":"Reddit (2022a) AutoModerator. Reddit. Available at: https:\/\/mods.reddithelp.com\/hc\/en-us\/articles\/360002561632-AutoModerator (accessed 22 April 2022)."},{"key":"bibr57-14614448221109804","unstructured":"Reddit (2022b) General moderation info. Reddit. Available at: https:\/\/mods.reddithelp.com\/hc\/en-us\/categories\/360000255232-General-Moderation-Info (accessed 22 April 2022)."},{"key":"bibr58-14614448221109804","unstructured":"Reddit (2022c) R\/blog \u2013 announcing blocking updates. Reddit, 18 January. Available at: https:\/\/www.reddit.com\/r\/blog\/comments\/s71g03\/announcing_blocking_updates\/ (accessed 22 April 2022)."},{"key":"bibr59-14614448221109804","first-page":"12","volume-title":"The Intersectional Internet: Race, Sex, Class and Culture Online","author":"Roberts ST","year":"2016"},{"key":"bibr60-14614448221109804","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.2307\/j.ctvhrcz0v"},{"key":"bibr61-14614448221109804","unstructured":"Rodriguez J (2019) Instagram apologizes to pole dancers after hiding their posts. CTVnews, 6 August. Available at: https:\/\/www.ctvnews.ca\/sci-tech\/instagram-apologizes-to-pole-dancers-after-hiding-their-posts-1.4537820?cache="},{"key":"bibr62-14614448221109804","unstructured":"Rosen G (2019) Remove, reduce, inform: new steps to manage problematic content. Meta, 10 April. Available at: https:\/\/about.fb.com\/news\/2019\/04\/remove-reduce-inform-new-steps\/"},{"key":"bibr63-14614448221109804","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1177\/1461444820920759"},{"key":"bibr64-14614448221109804","unstructured":"Salty (2019) Exclusive: an investigation into algorithmic bias in content policing on Instagram. Salty, 23 October. Available at: https:\/\/twitter.com\/saltyworldbabes\/status\/1313579751546728449"},{"key":"bibr65-14614448221109804","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1145\/2998181.2998277"},{"key":"bibr66-14614448221109804","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1177\/1461444818821316"},{"key":"bibr67-14614448221109804","unstructured":"Smith SL, Haimson OL, Fitzsimmons C, et al. (2021) Censorship of marginalized communities on Instagram. Salty, 29 September. 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