{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,4]],"date-time":"2026-05-04T23:28:29Z","timestamp":1777937309866,"version":"3.51.4"},"reference-count":41,"publisher":"SAGE Publications","issue":"5","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2023,11,29]],"date-time":"2023-11-29T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1701216000000},"content-version":"unspecified","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"},{"start":{"date-parts":[[2023,11,29]],"date-time":"2023-11-29T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1701216000000},"content-version":"tdm","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/journals.sagepub.com\/page\/policies\/text-and-data-mining-license"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100003246","name":"Nederlandse Organisatie voor Wetenschappelijk Onderzoek","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["Spinoza Prize"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["Spinoza Prize"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100003246","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":["journals.sagepub.com"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["New Media &amp; Society"],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2025,5]]},"abstract":"<jats:p>In a world increasingly shaped by generative AI systems like ChatGPT, the absence of benchmarks to examine the efficacy of oversight mechanisms is a problem for research and policy. What are the structural conditions for governing generative AI systems? To answer this question, it is crucial to situate generative AI systems as regulatory objects: material items that can be governed. On this conceptual basis, we introduce three high-level conditions to structure research and policy agendas on generative AI governance: industrial observability, public inspectability, and technical modifiability. Empirically, we explicate those conditions with a focus on the EU\u2019s AI Act, grounding the analysis of oversight mechanisms for generative AI systems in their granular material properties as observable, inspectable, and modifiable objects. Those three conditions represent an action plan to help us perceive generative AI systems as negotiable objects, rather than seeing them as mysterious forces that pose existential risks for humanity.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1177\/14614448231214811","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2023,11,30]],"date-time":"2023-11-30T01:06:27Z","timestamp":1701306387000},"page":"2788-2806","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1177\/sage-journals-update-policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":27,"title":["Observe, inspect, modify: Three conditions for generative AI governance"],"prefix":"10.1177","volume":"27","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-0637-0232","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Fabian","family":"Ferrari","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Utrecht University, The Netherlands"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-0499-9045","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Jos\u00e9","family":"van Dijck","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Utrecht University, The Netherlands"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Antal","family":"van den Bosch","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Utrecht University, The Netherlands"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"179","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,11,29]]},"reference":[{"key":"e_1_3_5_2_1","unstructured":"Bertuzzi L (2023) EU policymakers enter the last mile for AI rulebook. Euractiv 25 October. Available at: https:\/\/www.euractiv.com\/section\/artificial-intelligence\/news\/eu-policymakers-enter-the-last-mile-for-artificial-intelligence-rulebook\/"},{"key":"e_1_3_5_3_1","unstructured":"Birhane A Prabhu VU Kahembwe E (2021) Multimodal datasets: misogyny pornography and malignant stereotypes. arXiv. Available at: https:\/\/arxiv.org\/abs\/2110.01963"},{"key":"e_1_3_5_4_1","unstructured":"Blumenthal R Hawley J (2023) Hawley and Blumenthal demand answers from meta. Senator Josh Hawley 6 June. Available at: https:\/\/www.hawley.senate.gov\/hawley-and-blumenthal-demand-answers-meta-warn-misuse-after-leak-metas-ai-model"},{"key":"e_1_3_5_5_1","unstructured":"Bommasani R Hudson DA Adeli E et al. (2021) On the opportunities and risks of foundation models. arXiv. Available at: https:\/\/arxiv.org\/abs\/2108.07258"},{"key":"e_1_3_5_6_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1177\/2053951720935146"},{"key":"e_1_3_5_7_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1177\/2053951715622512"},{"key":"e_1_3_5_8_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1017\/elo.2022.47"},{"key":"e_1_3_5_9_1","unstructured":"Edwards B (2022) China bans AI-generated media without watermarks. Arstechnica 13 December. Available at: https:\/\/arstechnica.com\/information-technology\/2022\/12\/china-bans-ai-generated-media-without-watermarks\/"},{"key":"e_1_3_5_10_1","unstructured":"European Parliament (2023) MEPs ready to negotiate first-ever rules for safe and transparent AI. Available at: https:\/\/www.europarl.europa.eu\/news\/en\/press-room\/20230609IPR96212\/meps-ready-to-negotiate-first-ever-rules-for-safe-and-transparent-ai."},{"key":"e_1_3_5_11_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1177\/26349825231193226"},{"key":"e_1_3_5_12_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/s42256-023-00695-5"},{"key":"e_1_3_5_13_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/reel.12081"},{"key":"e_1_3_5_14_1","volume-title":"Custodians of the Internet: Platforms, Content Moderation, and the Hidden Decisions That Shape Social Media","author":"Gillespie T","year":"2018","unstructured":"Gillespie T (2018) Custodians of the Internet: Platforms, Content Moderation, and the Hidden Decisions That Shape Social Media. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press."},{"key":"e_1_3_5_15_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Gonen H Goldberg Y (2019) Lipstick on a pig: debiasing methods cover up systematic gender biases in word embeddings but do not remove them. arXiv. Available at: https:\/\/arxiv.org\/abs\/1903.03862","DOI":"10.18653\/v1\/N19-1061"},{"key":"e_1_3_5_16_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1017\/9781108890960.013"},{"key":"e_1_3_5_17_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Helberger N Diakopoulos N (2023) ChatGPT and the AI act. Internet Policy Review 12(1). Available at: https:\/\/policyreview.info\/essay\/chatgpt-and-ai-act","DOI":"10.14763\/2023.1.1682"},{"key":"e_1_3_5_18_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.4324\/9780203413845"},{"key":"e_1_3_5_19_1","unstructured":"Lambert L Castricato L von Werra L et al. (2022) Illustrating Reinforcement Learning from Human Feedback (RLHF). Available at: https:\/\/huggingface.co\/blog\/rlhf"},{"key":"e_1_3_5_20_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1215\/9780822383543"},{"key":"e_1_3_5_21_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1177\/0306312706059461"},{"key":"e_1_3_5_22_1","unstructured":"Li P Yang J Islam MA et al. (2023) Making AI less \u201cthirsty\u201d: uncovering and addressing the secret water footprint of AI models. arXiv preprint. arXiv:2307.05532. Available at: https:\/\/arxiv.org\/abs\/2307.05532"},{"key":"e_1_3_5_23_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Liesenfeld A Lopez A Dingemanse M (2023) Opening up ChatGPT: tracking openness transparency and accountability in instruction-tuned text generators. In: Proceedings of the 5th international conference on conversational user interfaces pp. 1\u20136. arXiv preprint. arXiv:2304.03271. Available at: https:\/\/arxiv.org\/abs\/2307.05532","DOI":"10.1145\/3571884.3604316"},{"key":"e_1_3_5_24_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1177\/20539517211047734"},{"key":"e_1_3_5_25_1","unstructured":"Milmo D (2023) ChatGPT reaches 100 million users two months after launch. The Guardian 2 February. Available at: https:\/\/www.theguardian.com\/technology\/2023\/feb\/02\/chatgpt-100-million-users-open-ai-fastest-growing-app"},{"key":"e_1_3_5_26_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1145\/3287560.3287596"},{"key":"e_1_3_5_27_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s43681-023-00289-2."},{"key":"e_1_3_5_28_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.18653\/v1\/2022.naacl-main.188"},{"key":"e_1_3_5_29_1","unstructured":"Perrigo B (2023) OpenAI lobbied the E.U. to water down AI regulation. TIME 20 June. Available at: https:\/\/time.com\/6288245\/openai-eu-lobbying-ai-act\/"},{"key":"e_1_3_5_30_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.14763\/2020.4.1535"},{"key":"e_1_3_5_31_1","unstructured":"Satariano A (2023) ChatGPT is banned in Italy over privacy concerns. The New York Times 31 March. Available at: https:\/\/www.nytimes.com\/2023\/03\/31\/technology\/chatgpt-italy-ban.html"},{"key":"e_1_3_5_32_1","unstructured":"Scao TL Fan A Akiki C et al. (2023) BLOOM: A 176B-Parameter Open-Access Multilingual Language Model. arXiv Preprint. arXiv:2211.05100v4. Available at: https:\/\/arxiv.org\/abs\/2211.05100"},{"key":"e_1_3_5_33_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1177\/2053951717738104"},{"key":"e_1_3_5_34_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1080\/1369118X.2021.1874035"},{"key":"e_1_3_5_35_1","unstructured":"Sheehan M (2023) What the U.S. can learn from China about regulating AI. Foreign Policy 12 September. Available at: https:\/\/foreignpolicy.com\/2023\/09\/12\/ai-artificial-intelligence-regulation-law-china-us-schumer-congress\/"},{"key":"e_1_3_5_36_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Singhal K Tu T Mahdavi SS et al. (2023) Large language models encode clinical knowledge. Nature 620(7972): 172\u2013180.","DOI":"10.1038\/s41586-023-06291-2"},{"key":"e_1_3_5_37_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Solaiman I (2023) The gradient of generative AI release: methods and considerations. In: Proceedings of the 2023 ACM conference on fairness accountability and transparency pp. 111\u2013122. arXiv preprint. Available at: https:\/\/arxiv.org\/abs\/2302.04844","DOI":"10.1145\/3593013.3593981"},{"key":"e_1_3_5_38_1","unstructured":"UNESCO (2023) Guidance for generative AI in education and research. Available at: https:\/\/www.unesco.org\/en\/articles\/guidance-generative-ai-education-and-research"},{"key":"e_1_3_5_39_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1177\/1461444820940293"},{"key":"e_1_3_5_40_1","unstructured":"Vaswani A Shazeer N Parmar N et al. (2017) Attention is all you need. Advances in Neural Information Processing Systems. Available at: https:\/\/proceedings.neurips.cc\/paper_files\/paper\/2017\/file\/3f5ee243547dee91fbd053c1c4a845aa-Paper.pdf"},{"key":"e_1_3_5_41_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Veale M Matus K Gorwa R (2023) AI and global governance: Modalities rationales tensions. Annual Review of Law and Social Science. SocArXiv preprint. Available at: https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1146\/annurev-lawsocsci-020223-040749","DOI":"10.31235\/osf.io\/ubxgk"},{"key":"e_1_3_5_42_1","unstructured":"Widder DG Whittaker M Myers West S (2023) Open (for Business): big tech concentrated power and the political economy of open AI. SSRN Preprint. Available at: https:\/\/ssrn.com\/abstract=4543807"}],"container-title":["New Media &amp; Society"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/journals.sagepub.com\/doi\/pdf\/10.1177\/14614448231214811","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/journals.sagepub.com\/doi\/full-xml\/10.1177\/14614448231214811","content-type":"application\/xml","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/journals.sagepub.com\/doi\/pdf\/10.1177\/14614448231214811","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,2]],"date-time":"2026-05-02T04:00:22Z","timestamp":1777694422000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/journals.sagepub.com\/doi\/10.1177\/14614448231214811"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2023,11,29]]},"references-count":41,"journal-issue":{"issue":"5","published-print":{"date-parts":[[2025,5]]}},"alternative-id":["10.1177\/14614448231214811"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1177\/14614448231214811","relation":{},"ISSN":["1461-4448","1461-7315"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1461-4448","type":"print"},{"value":"1461-7315","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2023,11,29]]}}}