{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,29]],"date-time":"2026-06-29T14:15:41Z","timestamp":1782742541615,"version":"3.54.5"},"reference-count":41,"publisher":"SAGE Publications","issue":"4","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,1,12]],"date-time":"2025-01-12T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1736640000000},"content-version":"tdm","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/journals.sagepub.com\/page\/policies\/text-and-data-mining-license"}],"funder":[{"name":"Internews","award":["OSC-IN-PH22UOT-159-100"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["OSC-IN-PH22UOT-159-100"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":["journals.sagepub.com"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["New Media &amp; Society"],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2026,4]]},"abstract":"<jats:p>This study investigates gray areas of contemporary political campaigning from a political economy perspective. Using qualitative field and digital methods, computational methods, and economic modeling, it analyzes the scope, scale, and cost of commissioning social media influencers in the 2022 Philippine Elections across Facebook, Twitter, YouTube, and TikTok. The researchers find that there is a high demand for influencers to campaign for candidates, characterized by premium and dynamic incentives under informal and obscure arrangements. We identified 1425 influencer accounts across the four social media platforms that engage in covert political campaigning and categorized them into seven types. The cost of these influencer-led campaigns is estimated to range from USD 27M following a pay-per-post compensation model, to USD 10.9M using a retainer model. This article serves as a model for both election research and election policy by providing a modular framework that addresses knowledge gaps in various country contexts.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1177\/14614448241312191","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,1,13]],"date-time":"2025-01-13T01:49:10Z","timestamp":1736732950000},"page":"1686-1709","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1177\/sage-journals-update-policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":2,"title":["Covert political campaigning: Mapping the scope, scale, and cost of cross-platform election influence operations"],"prefix":"10.1177","volume":"28","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-6577-7940","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Fatima","family":"Gaw","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Northwestern University, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-5464-8748","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Jon Benedik A","family":"Bunquin","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"University of Oregon, USA; University of the Philippines Diliman, Philippines"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-8910-0643","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Jose Mari H","family":"Lanuza","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"University of Massachusetts Amherst, USA; University of the Philippines Manila, Philippines"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-6303-2884","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Samuel I","family":"Cabbuag","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Hong Kong Baptist University, Hong Kong; University of the Philippines Diliman, Philippines"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-2087-1394","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Noreen H","family":"Sapalo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"University of the Philippines Diliman, Philippines"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-5220-1037","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Al-Habbyel","family":"Yusoph","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Bocconi University, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"179","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,1,12]]},"reference":[{"key":"e_1_3_4_2_1","first-page":"1","article-title":"Overlooking the political economy in the research on propaganda","volume":"2","author":"Abhishek A","year":"2021","unstructured":"Abhishek A (2021) Overlooking the political economy in the research on propaganda. Harvard Kennedy School Misinformation Review 2: 1\u201314.","journal-title":"Harvard Kennedy School Misinformation Review"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_3_1","volume-title":"The disinformation age","author":"Bennett W","year":"2020","unstructured":"Bennett W, Livingston S (2020) The disinformation age. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press."},{"key":"e_1_3_4_4_1","first-page":"23","article-title":"The gender dimensions of foreign influence operations","volume":"15","author":"Bradshaw S","year":"2021","unstructured":"Bradshaw S, Henle A (2021) The gender dimensions of foreign influence operations. International Journal of Communication 15: 23.","journal-title":"International Journal of Communication"},{"issue":"15","key":"e_1_3_4_5_1","first-page":"23","article-title":"The global organization of social media disinformation campaigns","volume":"71","author":"Bradshaw S","year":"2018","unstructured":"Bradshaw S, Howard PN (2018) The global organization of social media disinformation campaigns. Journal of International Affairs 71(15): 23\u201332.","journal-title":"Journal of International Affairs"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_6_1","unstructured":"Commission on Elections (2021) Resolution No. 10730: Rules and regulations implementing Republic Act No. 9006 otherwise known as the \u201cFair Election Act\u201d in connection with the May 9 2022 National and Local Elections. COMELEC 17 November. Available at: https:\/\/comelec.gov.ph\/?r=2022NLE\/Resolutions\/res10730"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_7_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-030-27693-5_1"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_8_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.4324\/9780203149102-27"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_9_1","unstructured":"European Commission (2018) A multi-dimensional approach to disinformation: report of the independent high level group on fake news and online disinformation. High Level Expert Group on Fake News and Disinformation. Available at: https:\/\/ec.europa.eu\/digital-single-market\/en\/news\/final-report-high-level-expert-group-fake-news-and-online-disinformation"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_10_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Fallorina R Lanuza JMH Felix JG et al (2023) From disinformation to influence operations: the evolution of disinformation in three electoral cycles. Internews 29 June. Available at: https:\/\/internews.org\/resource\/from-disinformation-to-influence-operations-the-evolution-of-disinformation-in-three-electoral-cycles\/","DOI":"10.4324\/9781003333326-17"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_11_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.4135\/9781848608047.n12"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_12_1","volume-title":"Political Cleavages and Social Inequalities in Fifty Democracies, 1948\u20132020","author":"Gethin A","year":"2021","unstructured":"Gethin A, Mart\u00ednez-Toledano C, Piketty T (2021) Political Cleavages and Social Inequalities in Fifty Democracies, 1948\u20132020. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press."},{"key":"e_1_3_4_13_1","first-page":"21","article-title":"Political relational influencers: the mobilization of social media influencers in the political arena","volume":"17","author":"Goodwin A","year":"2023","unstructured":"Goodwin A, Joseff K, Riedl MJ, et al (2023) Political relational influencers: the mobilization of social media influencers in the political arena. International Journal of Communication 17: 21.","journal-title":"International Journal of Communication"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_14_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1080\/02650487.2020.1836925"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_15_1","unstructured":"InternetLab (2021) New TSE rules on electoral propaganda for 2022 advance topics of attention for the defense of digital rights. InternetLab 21 December. Available at: https:\/\/internetlab.org.br\/pt\/noticias\/novas-regras-do-tse-sobre-propaganda-eleitoral-para-2022-avancam-em-temas-de-atencao-para-a-defesa-de-direitos-digitais\/ (accessed 15 May 2024)."},{"key":"e_1_3_4_16_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1080\/10584609.2019.1661888"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_17_1","unstructured":"Lai S (2022) Campaigns pay influencers to carry their messages skirting political ad rules. New York Times 22 November. Available at: https:\/\/www.nytimes.com\/2022\/11\/02\/us\/elections\/influencers-political-ads-tiktok-instagram.html"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_18_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1080\/10584609.2020.1718257"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_19_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1177\/1329878X211010868"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_20_1","unstructured":"Marwick A Lewis R (2017) Media manipulation and disinformation online. Data & Society. Available at: https:\/\/datasociety.net\/wp-content\/uploads\/2017\/05\/DataAndSociety_MediaManipulationAndDisinformationOnline-1.pdf"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_21_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-319-96334-1_50"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_22_1","unstructured":"Mollan C (2024) Lok Sabha 2024: the influencers driving India\u2019s big election. BBC 4 May. Available at: https:\/\/www.bbc.com\/news\/world-asia-india-68920953"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_23_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.4135\/9781446218587"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_24_1","first-page":"5771","article-title":"When disinformation studies meets production studies: social identities and moral justifications in the political trolling industry","volume":"13","author":"Ong JC","year":"2019","unstructured":"Ong JC, Caba\u00f1es JV (2019) When disinformation studies meets production studies: social identities and moral justifications in the political trolling industry. International Journal of Communication 13: 5771\u20135790.","journal-title":"International Journal of Communication"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_25_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1080\/01292986.2021.1971270"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_26_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1093\/joc\/jqaa013"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_27_1","first-page":"360","volume-title":"Routledge Handbook of Political Management","author":"Perron L","year":"2010","unstructured":"Perron L (2010) Election campaigns in the Philippines. In: Johnson DW (ed.) Routledge Handbook of Political Management. New York: Routledge, pp. 360\u2013369."},{"key":"e_1_3_4_28_1","volume-title":"Digital Ethnography: Principles and Practice","author":"Pink S","year":"2015","unstructured":"Pink S, Horst HA, Postill J, et al (eds) (2015) Digital Ethnography: Principles and Practice. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage."},{"key":"e_1_3_4_29_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1177\/20563051231177938"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_30_1","unstructured":"Salazar C (2022) Robredo leads Marcos snubs advertising on Facebook. Philippine Center for Investigative Journalism 13 January. Available at: https:\/\/pcij.org\/2022\/01\/13\/robredo-leads-marcos-snubs-advertising-on-facebook\/"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_31_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1177\/19401612221088987"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_32_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.4324\/9781315712390-25"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_33_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1017\/jea.2020.11"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_34_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1177\/20563051211009073"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_35_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1177\/13548565211029769"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_36_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1177\/20563051231177943"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_37_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.4324\/9781315256832-5"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_38_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-031-16624-2_20"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_39_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1177\/20563051231224719"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_40_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1353\/jod.2022.0027"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_41_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1093\/oso\/9780190931407.001.0001"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_42_1","unstructured":"Yadav K Riedl MJ Wanless A et al (2023) What makes an influence operation malign? Carnegie Endowment for International Peace 7 August. Available at: https:\/\/carnegieendowment.org\/2023\/08\/07\/what-makes-influence-operation-malign-pub-90323"}],"container-title":["New Media &amp; Society"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/journals.sagepub.com\/doi\/pdf\/10.1177\/14614448241312191","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/journals.sagepub.com\/doi\/full-xml\/10.1177\/14614448241312191","content-type":"application\/xml","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/journals.sagepub.com\/doi\/pdf\/10.1177\/14614448241312191","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,2]],"date-time":"2026-05-02T04:03:16Z","timestamp":1777694596000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/journals.sagepub.com\/doi\/10.1177\/14614448241312191"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2025,1,12]]},"references-count":41,"journal-issue":{"issue":"4","published-print":{"date-parts":[[2026,4]]}},"alternative-id":["10.1177\/14614448241312191"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1177\/14614448241312191","relation":{},"ISSN":["1461-4448","1461-7315"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1461-4448","type":"print"},{"value":"1461-7315","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2025,1,12]]}}}