{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,22]],"date-time":"2026-10-22T20:24:49Z","timestamp":1792700689052,"version":"4.5.0"},"reference-count":67,"publisher":"SAGE Publications","issue":"4","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2024,10,31]],"date-time":"2024-10-31T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1730332800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-nc\/4.0\/"},{"start":{"date-parts":[[2024,10,31]],"date-time":"2024-10-31T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1730332800000},"content-version":"tdm","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/journals.sagepub.com\/page\/policies\/text-and-data-mining-license"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["journals.sagepub.com"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["Trauma, Violence, &amp; Abuse"],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2025,10]]},"abstract":"<jats:p>Violence against children affects children in every region, nation, and community in the world. Despite a significant body of literature about the victims of such violence, there has been little empirical research, particularly in Sub-Saharan Africa, focused on perpetrators, their relationship to victims, and interventions that might alter their behavior. This scoping review sought to identify and summarize the scholarly literature on perpetrators of violence against children in Sub-Saharan Africa and their relationship with victims. Using a keyword search of academic databases, we included peer-reviewed studies published from January 2013 to June 2023 that focused on physical, sexual, or emotional violence against children in Sub-Saharan Africa and included prevalence data about victim\u2013perpetrator relationships. Eighteen of the 42 studies that met eligibility criteria shared one or more primary data sources with other studies included in this review, most frequently using data from Violence Against Children Surveys (10), the Uganda Good Schools Project (7), and the National Child Homicide Study (3). The most common classifications of perpetrators, in order of frequency, were caregivers\/family members, intimate partners, peers, teachers\/school staff and strangers, and the most common settings in which research took place were schools. Wide variability in the taxonomies used to define and report frequencies for age, victim, perpetrator, and type of violence obscures our ability to form a complete picture of victim\u2013perpetrator relationships. Research emphasis on victims of violence may lead to missed opportunities to disrupt the perpetration of violence against children through interventions that specifically target its source.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1177\/15248380241291900","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2024,10,31]],"date-time":"2024-10-31T10:02:17Z","timestamp":1730368937000},"page":"817-832","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1177\/sage-journals-update-policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":9,"title":["Violence Against Children in Sub-Saharan Africa: A Scoping Review of Literature on the Victim\u2013Perpetrator Relationship"],"prefix":"10.1177","volume":"26","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-0960-6423","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Francis H.","family":"Barchi","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Rutgers, The State University of New Jersey, New Brunswick, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-9609-5061","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Millan A.","family":"AbiNader","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"179","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,10,31]]},"reference":[{"key":"e_1_3_3_2_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Abrahams N. Mathews S. Lombard C. Martin L. J. Jewkes R. (2017). Sexual homicides in South Africa: A national cross-sectional epidemiological study of adult women and children. PLOS ONE 12(10) e0186432. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1371\/journal.pone.0186432","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0186432"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_3_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Abrahams N. Mathews S. Martin L. J. Lombard C. Nannan N. Jewkes R. (2016). Gender differences in homicide of neonates infants and children under 5 y in South Africa: Results from the cross-sectional 2009 National Child Homicide Study. PLOS Medicine 13(4) e1002003. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1371\/journal.pmed.1002003","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pmed.1002003"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_4_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Anda R. F. Butchart A. Felitti V. J. Brown D. W. (2010). Building a framework for global surveillance of the public health implications of adverse childhood experiences. American Journal of Preventive Medicine 39(1) 93\u201398. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.amepre.2010.03.015","DOI":"10.1016\/j.amepre.2010.03.015"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_5_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Baiocchi M. Friedberg R. Rosenman E. Amuyunzu-Nyamongo M. Oguda G. Otieno D. Sarnquist C. (2019). Prevalence and risk factors for sexual assault among class 6 female students in unplanned settlements of Nairobi Kenya: Baseline analysis from the IMPower & Sources of Strength cluster randomized controlled trial. PLoS One 14(6) e0213359. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1371\/journal.pone.0213359","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0213359"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_6_1","unstructured":"Cappa C. (2023). International Classification of Violence against Children. United Nations Children\u2019s Fund. https:\/\/www.unicef.org\/transmonee\/media\/826\/file\/2.1%20ENG%20International%20classification%20of%20violence%20against%20children%20.pdf"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_7_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Chiang L. F. Kress H. Sumner S. A. Gleckel J. Kawemama P. Gordon R. N. (2016). Violence Against Children Surveys (VACS): Towards a global surveillance system. Injury Prevention 22(Suppl 1) i17\u2013i22. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1136\/injuryprev-2015-041820","DOI":"10.1136\/injuryprev-2015-041820"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_8_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Chigiji H. Fry D. Mwadiwa T. E. Elizalde A. Izumi N. Baago-Rasmussen L. Maternowska M. C. (2018). Risk factors and health consequences of physical and emotional violence against children in Zimbabwe: A nationally representative survey. BMJ Global Health 3(3) e000533. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1136\/bmjgh-2017-000533","DOI":"10.1136\/bmjgh-2017-000533"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_9_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Chime O. H. Orji C. J. Aneke T. J. Nwoke I. N. (2021). Prevalence pattern and predictors of child sexual abuse among senior secondary school students in Enugu Metropolis. Malaysian Journal of Medical Sciences 28(4) 123\u2013137. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.21315\/mjms2021.28.4.13","DOI":"10.21315\/mjms2021.28.4.13"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_10_1","unstructured":"Convention on the Rights of the Child Pub. L. No. 1577 U.N.T.S.3. (1989). https:\/\/www.ohchr.org\/en\/instruments-mechanisms\/instruments\/convention-rights-child"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_11_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"David N. Ezechi O. Wapmuk A. Gbajabiamila T. Ohihoin A. Herbertson E. Odeyemi K. (2018). Child sexual abuse and disclosure in South Western Nigeria: A community based study. African Health Sciences 18(2) Article 2. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.4314\/ahs.v18i2","DOI":"10.4314\/ahs.v18i2.2"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_12_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Decker M. R. Peitzmeier S. Olumide A. Acharya R. Ojengbede O. Covarrubias L. Gao E. Cheng Y. Delaney-Moretlwe S. Brahmbhatt H. (2014). Prevalence and health impact of intimate Partner violence and non-partner sexual violence among female adolescents aged 15-19 years in vulnerable urban environments: A multi-country study. Journal of Adolescent Health 55 S58\u2013S67.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jadohealth.2014.08.022"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_13_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Dekel B. Abrahams N. Andipatin M. (2019). Exploring the intersection between violence against women and children from the perspective of parents convicted of child homicide. Journal of Family Violence 34(1) 9\u201320. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s10896-018-9964-5","DOI":"10.1007\/s10896-018-9964-5"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_14_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Devries K. Cerna-Turoff I. Fabbri C. Turner E. Nyakuwa R. Nherera C. M. Nhenga-Chakarisa T. Nengomasha B. C. Moyo R. (2023). Exploring children\u2019s formal help-seeking behaviour for violence in Zimbabwe: Analysis of national survey and routine service provider data. BMJ Open 13(5) e067818. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1136\/bmjopen-2022-067818","DOI":"10.1136\/bmjopen-2022-067818"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_15_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Devries K. Knight L. Petzold M. Merrill K. G. Maxwell L. Williams A. Cappa C. Chan K. L. Garcia-Moreno C. Hollis N. Kress H. Peterman A. Walsh S. D. Kishor S. Guedes A. Bott S. Butron Riveros B. C. Watts C. Abrahams N. (2018). Who perpetrates violence against children? A systematic analysis of age-specific and sex-specific data. BMJ Paediatrics Open 2(1) e000180. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1136\/bmjpo-2017-000180","DOI":"10.1136\/bmjpo-2017-000180"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_16_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Devries K. Kuper H. Knight L. Allen E. Kyegombe N. Banks L. M. Kelly S. Naker D. (2018). Reducing physical violence toward primary school studentvs with disabilities. Journal of Adolescent Health 62(3) 303\u2013310. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.jadohealth.2017.09.004","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jadohealth.2017.09.004"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_17_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Devries K. M. Child J. C. Allen E. Walakira E. Parkes J. Naker D. (2014). School violence mental health and educational performance in Uganda. Pediatrics 133(1) e129\u2013e137. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1542\/peds.2013-2007","DOI":"10.1542\/peds.2013-2007"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_18_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Devries K. M. Knight L. Child J. C. Kyegombe N. Hossain M. Lees S. Watts C. Naker D. (2017). Witnessing intimate partner violence and child maltreatment in Ugandan children: A cross-sectional survey. BMJ Open 7(2) e013583. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1136\/bmjopen-2016-013583","DOI":"10.1136\/bmjopen-2016-013583"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_19_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Devries K. M. Kyegombe N. Zuurmond M. Parkes J. Child J. C. Walakira E. J. Naker D. (2014). Violence against primary school children with disabilities in Uganda: A cross-sectional study. BMC Public Health 14(1) 1017. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1186\/1471-2458-14-1017","DOI":"10.1186\/1471-2458-14-1017"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_20_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Devries K. Merrill K. G. Knight L. Bott S. Guedes A. Butron-Riveros B. Hege C. Petzold M. Peterman A. Cappa C. Maxwell L. Williams A. Kishor S. Abrahams N. (2019). Violence against children in Latin America and the Caribbean: What do available data reveal about prevalence and perpetrators? Revista Panamericana de Salud P\u00fablica 43 e66. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.26633\/RPSP.2019.66","DOI":"10.26633\/RPSP.2019.66"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_21_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Edwards K. M. Kumar M. Waterman E. A. Mullet N. Madeghe B. Musindo O. (2024). Programs to prevent violence against children in Sub-Saharan Africa: A systematic review. Trauma Violence & Abuse 25(1) 593\u2013612. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1177\/15248380231160742","DOI":"10.1177\/15248380231160742"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_22_1","unstructured":"End Corporal Punishment. (n.d.). End global punishment. Retrieved October 19 2023 from https:\/\/endcorporalpunishment.org\/"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_23_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Fabbri C. Powell-Jackson T. Leurent B. Rodrigues K. Shayo E. Barongo V. Devries K. M. (2022). School violence depression symptoms and school climate: A cross-sectional study of Congolese and Burundian refugee children. Conflict and Health 16(1) 42. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1186\/s13031-022-00475-9","DOI":"10.1186\/s13031-022-00475-9"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_24_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Garcia M. C. Amin A. (2016). The sustainable development goals violence and women\u2019s and children\u2019s health. Bulletin of the World health Organization 2(94) 396\u2013397. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.2471\/BLT.16.172205","DOI":"10.2471\/BLT.16.172205"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_25_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Girgira T. Tilahun B. Bacha T. (2014). Time to presentation pattern and immediate health effects of alleged child sexual abuse at two tertiary hospitals in Addis Ababa Ethiopia. BMC Public Health 14(1) 92. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1186\/1471-2458-14-92","DOI":"10.1186\/1471-2458-14-92"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_26_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Goessmann K. Ssenyonga J. Nkuba M. Hermenau K. Hecker T. (2020). Characterizing the prevalence and contributing factors of sexual violence: A representative cross-sectional study among school-going adolescents in two East African countries. Child Abuse & Neglect 109 104711. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.chiabu.2020.104711","DOI":"10.1016\/j.chiabu.2020.104711"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_27_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hillis S. Mercy J. Amobi A. Kress H. (2016). Global prevalence of past-year violence against children: A systematic review and minimum estimates. Pediatrics 137(3) e20154079. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1542\/peds.2015-4079","DOI":"10.1542\/peds.2015-4079"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_28_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hillis S. D. Mercy J. A. Saul J. R. (2017). The enduring impact of violence against children. Psychology Health & Medicine 22(4) 393\u2013405. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1080\/13548506.2016.1153679","DOI":"10.1080\/13548506.2016.1153679"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_29_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hughes K. Bellis M. A. Hardcastle K. A. Sethi D. Butchart A. Mikton C. Jones L. Dunne M. P. (2017). The effect of multiple adverse childhood experiences on health: A systematic review and meta-analysis. The Lancet Public Health 2(8) e356\u2013e366. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/S2468-2667(17)30118-4","DOI":"10.1016\/S2468-2667(17)30118-4"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_30_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Jina R. Machisa M. Labuschagne G. Vetten L. Loots L. Jewkes R. (2020). Unspoken victims: A national study of male rape incidents and police investigations in South Africa. South African Medical Journal 110(9) 926\u2013931. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.7196\/SAMJ.2020.v110i9.14525","DOI":"10.7196\/SAMJ.2020.v110i9.14525"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_31_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kidman R. Kohler H.-P. (2020). Emerging partner violence among young adolescents in a low-income country: Perpetration victimization and adversity. PLOS ONE 15(3) e0230085. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1371\/journal.pone.0230085","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0230085"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_32_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kidman R. Palermo T. (2016). The relationship between parental presence and child sexual violence: Evidence from thirteen countries in Sub-Saharan Africa. Child Abuse & Neglect 51 172\u2013180. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.chiabu.2015.10.018","DOI":"10.1016\/j.chiabu.2015.10.018"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_33_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(02)11133-0"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_34_1","unstructured":"Ligiero D. Hart C. Fulu E. Thomas A. Radford L. (2019). What works to prevent sexual violence against children [Monograph]. UCLan\u2014University of Central Lancashire; Together for girls. https:\/\/www.togetherforgirls.org\/svsolutions\/"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_35_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lotto C. R. Altafim E. R. P. Linhares M. B. M. (2023). Maternal history of childhood adversities and later negative parenting: a systematic review. Trauma Violence & Abuse 24(2) 662\u2013683. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1177\/15248380211036076","DOI":"10.1177\/15248380211036076"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_36_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Mason-Jones A. J. Koker P. D. Eggers S. M. Mathews C. Temmerman M. Leye E. de Vries P. J. de Vries H. (2016). Intimate partner violence in early adolescence: The role of gender socioeconomic factors and the school. South African Medical Journal 106(5) Article 5. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.7196\/SAMJ.2016.v106i5.9770","DOI":"10.7196\/SAMJ.2016.v106i5.9770"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_37_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Mathews S. Abrahams N. Jewkes R. Martin L. J. Lombard C. (2013). The epidemiology of child homicides in South Africa. Bulletin of the World Health Organization 91(8) 562\u2013568. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.2471\/BLT.12.117036","DOI":"10.2471\/BLT.12.117036"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_38_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Mathews S. Abrahams N. Martin L. J. Lombard C. Jewkes R. (2019). Homicide pattern among adolescents: A national epidemiological study of child homicide in South Africa. PLOS ONE 14(8) e0221415. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1371\/journal.pone.0221415","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0221415"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_39_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Meinck F. Cluver L. D. Boyes M. E. Loening-Voysey H. (2016). Physical emotional and sexual adolescent abuse victimisation in South Africa: Prevalence incidence perpetrators and locations. Journal of Epidemiology and Community Health 70(9) 910\u2013916. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1136\/jech-2015-205860","DOI":"10.1136\/jech-2015-205860"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_40_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Meinck F. Fry D. Ginindza C. Wazny K. Elizalde A. Spreckelsen T. F. Maternowska M. C. Dunne M. P. (2017). Emotional abuse of girls in Swaziland: Prevalence perpetrators risk and protective factors and health outcomes. Journal of Global Health 7(1) 010410. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.7189\/jogh.07.010410","DOI":"10.7189\/jogh.07.010410"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_41_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Moher D. Shamseer L. Clarke M. Ghersi D. Liberati A. Petticrew M. Shekelle P. Stewart L. A. & PRISMA-P Group. (2015). Preferred reporting items for systematic review and meta-analysis protocols (PRISMA-P) 2015 statement. Systematic Reviews 4(1) 1. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1186\/2046-4053-4-1","DOI":"10.1186\/2046-4053-4-1"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_42_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Mwangi M. W. Kellogg T. A. Brookmeyer K. Buluma R. Chiang L. Otieno-Nyunya B. Chesang K. (2015). Perpetrators and context of child sexual abuse in Kenya. Child Abuse & Neglect 44 46\u201355. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.chiabu.2015.03.011","DOI":"10.1016\/j.chiabu.2015.03.011"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_43_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Namy S. Carlson C. Pala A. N. Faris D. Knight L. Allen E. Devries K. M. Naker D. (2017). Gender violence and resilience among Ugandan adolescents. Child Abuse & Neglect 70 303\u2013314. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.chiabu.2017.06.015","DOI":"10.1016\/j.chiabu.2017.06.015"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_44_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Nhassengo S. K. Matsinhe S.O. Jetha E. Laflamme L. (2021). Circumstances and consequences of violence-related injuries presenting at hospital. A study at the Pediatric Emergency and Forensic Medicine Units of Maputo Central Hospital Mozambique. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 18(22) 12125.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijerph182212125"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_45_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Nyandwi A. Namatovu F. Rusanganwa V. Munyanshongore C. Nyirazinyoye L. Ndola P. Nshimiyimana J. D. Ingabire M.-G. Nyirabahinde A. Salant N. Kamukunzi M. (2022). Sexual violence against children in Rwanda: Prevalence and associated factors. Rwanda Journal of Medicine and Health Sciences 5(3) Article 3. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.4314\/rjmhs.v5i3.5","DOI":"10.4314\/rjmhs.v5i3.5"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_46_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ohayi R. S. Ezugwu E. C. Chigbu C. O. Arinze-Onyia S. U. Iyoke C. A. (2015). Prevalence and pattern of rape among girls and women attending Enugu State University Teaching Hospital southeast Nigeria. International Journal of Gynecology & Obstetrics 130(1) 10\u201313. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.ijgo.2015.02.017","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijgo.2015.02.017"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_47_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Peltonen K. Ellonen N. P\u00f6s\u00f6 T. Lucas S. (2014). Mothers\u2019 self-reported violence toward their children: A multifaceted risk analysis. Child Abuse & Neglect 38(12) 1923\u20131933. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.chiabu.2014.10.016","DOI":"10.1016\/j.chiabu.2014.10.016"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_48_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Pundir P. Saran A. White H. Subrahmanian R. Adona J. (2020). Interventions for reducing violence against children in low- and middle-income countries: An evidence and gap map. Campbell Systematic Reviews 16(4) e1120. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1002\/cl2.1120","DOI":"10.1002\/cl2.1120"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_49_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Rockowitz S. Stevens L. M. Rockey J. C. Smith L. L. Ritchie J. Colloff M. F. Kanja W. Cotton J. Njoroge D. Kamau C. Flowe H. D. (2021). Patterns of sexual violence against adults and children during the COVID-19 pandemic in Kenya: A prospective cross-sectional study. BMJ Open 11(9) e048636. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1136\/bmjopen-2021-048636","DOI":"10.1136\/bmjopen-2021-048636"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_50_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Rumble L. Mungate T. Chigiji H. Salama P. Nolan A. Sammon E. Muwoni L. (2015). Childhood sexual violence in Zimbabwe: Evidence for the epidemic against girls. Child Abuse & Neglect 46 60\u201366. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.chiabu.2015.04.015","DOI":"10.1016\/j.chiabu.2015.04.015"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_51_1","unstructured":"End Violence Against Children. (n.d.). Safe to learn. https:\/\/www.end-violence.org\/safe-to-learn"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_52_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sim A. Jirapramukpitak T. Eagling-Peche S. Lwin K. Z. Melendez-Torres G. J. Gonzalez A. Oo N. N. Mitjans I. C. Soan M. Punpuing S. Lee C. Chuenglertsiri P. Moo T. Puffer E. (2023). A film-based intervention to reduce child maltreatment among migrant and displaced families from Myanmar: Protocol of a pragmatic cluster randomized controlled trial. PLOS ONE 18(10) e0293623. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1371\/journal.pone.0293623","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0293623"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_53_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sood S. Kostizak K. Mertz N. Stevens S. Rodrigues F. Hauer M. (2022). What works to address violence against children (VAC) in and around schools. Trauma Violence & Abuse 23(4) 1317\u20131329. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1177\/1524838021998309","DOI":"10.1177\/1524838021998309"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_54_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ssenyonga J. Muwonge C.M. Hecker T. (2019). Prevalence of family violence and mental health and their relation to peer victimization: A representative study of adolescent students in southwestern Uganda. Child Abuse & Neglect 98 104194. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.chiabu.2019.104194","DOI":"10.1016\/j.chiabu.2019.104194"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_55_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Stark L. Asghar K. Yu G. Bora C. Baysa A. A. Falb K. L. (2017). Prevalence and associated risk factors of violence against conflict\u2013affected female adolescents: A multi\u2013country cross\u2013sectional study. Journal of Global Health 7(1) 010416. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.7189\/jogh.07.010416","DOI":"10.7189\/jogh.07.010416"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_56_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Stark L. Seff I. Hoover A. Gordon R. Ligiero D. Massetti G. (2019). Sex and age effects in past-year experiences of violence amongst adolescents in five countries. PLOS ONE 14(7) e0219073. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1371\/journal.pone.0219073","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0219073"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_57_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Stark L. Seff I. Weber A. M. Cislaghi B. Meinhart M. Bermudez L. G. Atuchukwu V. Onotu D. Darmstadt G. L. (2020). Perpetration of intimate partner violence and mental health outcomes: Sex- and gender-disaggregated associations among adolescents and young adults in Nigeria. Journal of Global Health 10(1) 010708. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.7189\/jogh.10.010708","DOI":"10.7189\/jogh.10.010708"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_58_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Steele S.J. Abrahams N. Duncan K. Woolett N. Hwang B. O\u2019Connell L. van Cutsem G. Shroufi A. (2019). The epidemiology of rape and sexual violence in the platinum mining districts of Rustenburg South Africa: Prevalence and factors associated with sexual violence. PLoS One 14(7) e0216449. https:\/\/doi\/10.1371\/journal.pone.0216449","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0216449"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_59_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sumner S. A. Mercy J. A. Buluma R. Mwangi M. W. Marcelin L. H. Kheam T. Lea V. Brookmeyer K. Kress H. Hillis S. D. (2016). Childhood sexual violence against Boys: A study in 3 countries. Pediatrics 137(5) e20153386. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1542\/peds.2015-3386","DOI":"10.1542\/peds.2015-3386"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_60_1","unstructured":"Together for Girls. (n.d.). Together for girls. Retrieved October 19 2023 from https:\/\/www.togetherforgirls.org\/en\/partners"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_61_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Turner E. Cerna-Turoff I. Nyakuwa R. Nhenga-Chakarisa T. Nherera C.M. Parkes J. Nangati P.R. Nengomasha B. Moyo R. Devries K. (2022). Referral of sexual violence against children: How do children and caregivers use a formal child protection mechanism in Harare Zimbabwe? SSM-Qualitative Research in Health 2 100184. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.ssmqr.2022.100184","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ssmqr.2022.100184"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_62_1","unstructured":"Violence Against Children. (n.d.). UN special representative of the secretary-general on violence against children. https:\/\/violenceagainstchildren.un.org\/"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_63_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Vagi K. J. Brookmeyer K. A. Gladden R. M. Chiang L. F. Brooks A. Nyunt M.-Z. Kwesigabo G. Mercy J. A. Dahlberg L. L. (2016). Sexual violence against female and male children in the United Republic of Tanzania. Violence Against Women 22(14) 1788\u20131807. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1177\/1077801216634466","DOI":"10.1177\/1077801216634466"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_64_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Velloza J. Davies L. D. Ensminger A. L. Theofelus F. M. Andjamba H. Kamuingona R. Masseti G. Coomer R. Forster N. O\u2019Malley G. (2022). Cycles of violence among young Women in Namibia: Exploring the links between childhood violence and adult intimate partner violence from the Violence Against Children and Youth Survey. Journal of Interpersonal Violence 37(23\u201324) NP22992\u2013NP23014. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1177\/08862605211073107","DOI":"10.1177\/08862605211073107"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_65_1","unstructured":"World Health Organization. (n.d.a). Violence against children Fact Sheet. Retrieved September 24 2023 from https:\/\/www.who.int\/news-room\/fact-sheets\/detail\/violence-against-children"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_66_1","unstructured":"World Health Organization. (n.d.b). Violence Info\u2014Intimate partner violence. Retrieved September 23 2023 from https:\/\/apps.who.int\/violence-info\/intimate-partner-violence\/"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_67_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Walakira E. J. Ddumba-Nyanzi I. Lishan S. Baizerman M. (2014). No place is safe: Violence against and among children and youth in street situations in Uganda. Vulnerable Children and Youth Studies 9(4) 332\u2013340. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1080\/17450128.2014.934750","DOI":"10.1080\/17450128.2014.934750"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_68_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wandera S. O. Clarke K. Knight L. Allen E. Walakira E. Namy S. Naker D. Devries K. (2017). Violence against children perpetrated by peers: A cross-sectional school-based survey in Uganda. Child Abuse & Neglect 68 65\u201373. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.chiabu.2017.04.006","DOI":"10.1016\/j.chiabu.2017.04.006"}],"container-title":["Trauma, Violence, &amp; Abuse"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/journals.sagepub.com\/doi\/pdf\/10.1177\/15248380241291900","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/journals.sagepub.com\/doi\/full-xml\/10.1177\/15248380241291900","content-type":"application\/xml","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/journals.sagepub.com\/doi\/pdf\/10.1177\/15248380241291900","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,2]],"date-time":"2026-05-02T05:33:05Z","timestamp":1777699985000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/journals.sagepub.com\/doi\/10.1177\/15248380241291900"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2024,10,31]]},"references-count":67,"journal-issue":{"issue":"4","published-print":{"date-parts":[[2025,10]]}},"alternative-id":["10.1177\/15248380241291900"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1177\/15248380241291900","relation":{},"ISSN":["1524-8380","1552-8324"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1524-8380","type":"print"},{"value":"1552-8324","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2024,10,31]]}}}