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Synthesizing evidence on OHS directed at sexual and gender minorities (SGMs) is crucial, given the disproportionate online discrimination experienced by SGM people and its implications for well-being and social norms. This PRISMA-based systematic review synthesized quantitative studies in which the target of OHS content was SGM people, regardless of whether participants were SGM or non-SGM. We addressed four questions: (a) OHS definitions and operationalizations; (b) prevalence and risk factors of OHS; (c) psychological, behavioral, and social outcomes of exposure; and (d) behavioral responses to OHS exposure. Searches of 5 databases identified 13 studies. Definitions varied but generally captured identity-based targeting and hostile content in public or semi-public digital spaces. Prevalence varied by sampling frame: SGM-only studies reported high exposure (often\u2009&gt;\u200985%), whereas general-population studies reported lower prevalence but higher exposure among SGM respondents. Risk factors were identity visibility\/engagement, online behaviors, and lower digital media literacy; perpetration evidence was scarce. Exposure was associated with poorer SGM well-being (e.g., depression\/anxiety, substance use, concealment, identity threat) and, experimentally, with lower perceived social cohesion and mixed effects on social attitudes. Witnesses generally condemned anti-SGM OHS; tolerance was higher among users with more negative pre-existing attitudes. Perceiving OHS as uncivil or harmful predicted stronger intervention intentions, while counter-speech effects were modest, reducing identity threat mainly under milder OHS. Findings highlight the need for harmonized measures, longitudinal\/intersectional designs, and interventions pairing platform moderation with bystander-focused prevention efforts.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1177\/15248380261429520","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,15]],"date-time":"2026-04-15T06:55:47Z","timestamp":1776236147000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1177\/sage-journals-update-policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":1,"title":["Understanding Online Hate Toward Sexual and Gender Minorities: A Systematic Review"],"prefix":"10.1177","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-0500-468X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Michela","family":"Mariotto","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"University of Rome \u201cRoma Tre\u201d, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-4294-6641","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Sara","family":"Costa","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"University of Rome \u201cRoma Tre\u201d, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Noemi","family":"Di Brango","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"University of Rome \u201cLa Sapienza\u201d, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-2864-3548","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Giuseppe","family":"Corbelli","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"University of Rome \u201cLa Sapienza\u201d, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Serena","family":"Verbena","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"University of Florence, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-6777-106X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Benedetta Emanuela","family":"Palladino","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"University of Florence, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-8025-3184","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Antonio","family":"Zuffian\u00f2","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"University of Rome \u201cLa Sapienza\u201d, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-9970-9666","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Salvatore","family":"Ioverno","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"University of Rome \u201cRoma Tre\u201d, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"179","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,14]]},"reference":[{"key":"e_1_3_3_2_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Arcila-Calder\u00f3n C. 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